Feature Microelectrodes
Extremely fine electrodes (tip ~1
Definition µm) used to penetrate inside a
single cell or near it
• Metal microelectrodes
Types (tungsten/stainless steel) • Glass
micropipet (filled with electrolyte)
Intracellular or very close to cell
Placement
membrane
Very high (MΩ range) → requires
Impedance
high input impedance amplifiers
Measures single-cell potentials with
Signal Quality
high spatial resolution
High — due to very small surface
Polarization Effect
area
Susceptible to noise and drift (very
Noise Susceptibility
small signals)
• Records intracellular potentials •
Advantages
High precision
• Hard to position • May damage
Disadvantages cell • Needs micromanipulators &
high-impedance amplifier
• Neurophysiology research • Single-
Applications
cell action potentials
Tungsten, stainless steel, glass
Electrode Material
micropipet filled with KCl solution
Concise Notes – Electrodes & Ion Measurement
1. Microelectrodes
Definition: Very fine electrodes (tip ≈ 1 μm) to record from inside a single cell.
Types:
Metal: Etched tungsten/stainless steel with insulating coating.
Micropipette: Glass pipette filled with electrolyte.
Features: Very high impedance (MΩ range) → requires high-input-impedance amplifiers.
Use: Intracellular potentials, single-cell recordings, neural research.
2. Body Surface Electrodes
Definition: Electrodes applied on skin to pick up summed biopotentials.
Types: Plate electrodes, suction-cup electrodes, floating electrodes, disposable pre-gelled electrodes.
Features: Non-invasive, affected by motion artifact, require skin preparation + electrolyte gel/paste.
Use: ECG, EEG, EMG, long-term monitoring.
3. Needle Electrodes
Definition: Electrodes penetrating skin → closer to muscle/nerve.
Types: Monopolar (one needle + reference), Bipolar (two needles).
Features: More localized, less motion artifact, slightly invasive.
Use: EMG for small muscle activity, intra-operative nerve monitoring.
4. Specific Ion Electrodes
Definition: Electrodes with ion-selective membrane (liquid or solid) to measure specific ion concentrati
Examples: pH electrode (H⁺), Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, F⁻, NH₃ electrodes.
Features: Provide potential proportional to ion activity; require reference electrode.
Use: Blood electrolyte analysis, clinical chemistry, environmental monitoring.
Feature Microelectrodes
Invasiveness Intracellular (highly invasive)
Tip Size ~1 μm
Placement Inside cell
Signal Type Single cell potential (intracellular)
Impedance Very high (MΩ)
Artifacts Minimal (but hard to position)
Applications Neuroscience, research
Advantages High precision, intracellular data
Disadvantages Technically difficult, fragile
xam Tip:
Remember: Microelectrodes = Intracellular, Body Surface = Summed, Non-invasive, Needle = Localize
Motion artifact is the most common issue with surface electrodes → floating electrodes minimize it.
Specific ion electrodes always need a reference electrode for potential measurement.
Topic Type / Principle
Biopotentials ECG
EEG
EMG
Electrodes Microelectrode
Body Surface
Needle
Specific Ion
Active Transducers Thermoelectric
Piezoelectric
Photoelectric
Magnetic Induction
Passive Transducers Resistive
Inductive
Capacitive
Measurement Circuit Wheatstone Bridge
Force Transducer Strain gauge based
Body Surface Electrodes Needle Electrodes
Electrodes placed on the skin Small, sharp electrodes that
surface to measure potentials non- penetrate skin to record potentials
invasively from local tissue/muscles
• Plate electrodes • Suction cup
electrodes • Floating electrodes • • Monopolar or concentric needle
Disposable pregelled electrodes • electrodes
Ear-clip & EEG scalp electrodes
Over skin with electrolyte paste/gel Inserted through skin into tissue
Low to medium (2–10 kΩ typical) Medium to high (kΩ range)
Localized, better SNR than surface
Summed activity of many fibers/cells
electrodes, avoids interference from
under electrode
nearby muscles
Lower (large contact area) Medium
Sensitive to motion artifacts (solved Less motion artifact (direct tissue
best with floating electrodes) contact)
• Non-invasive • Easy to apply • • More selective measurement •
Suitable for long-term monitoring Bypasses surface noise
• Motion artifact problem • Needs • Invasive, causes pain • Risk of
skin prep (shaving, cleaning) infection
• EMG for small/deep muscles •
• ECG (heart), EEG (brain), EMG
Local EEG recordings (stereotaxic
(muscles)
studies)
Mostly Ag/AgCl (silver-silver Stainless steel, platinum-iridium,
chloride) for stability Ag/AgCl
surement
side a single cell.
nput-impedance amplifiers.
rodes, disposable pre-gelled electrodes.
in preparation + electrolyte gel/paste.
solid) to measure specific ion concentration.
e reference electrode.
ntal monitoring.
Body Surface Electrodes Needle Electrodes
Non-invasive Minimally invasive
Large contact area (cm²) Fine needle tip
On skin surface Inserted into muscle/nerve region
Summed potentials (ECG, EEG, EMG) Localized muscle/nerve potentials
Low–medium Medium
High (motion sensitive) Low (less motion interference)
EMG diagnosis, intra-operative
ECG, EEG, EMG, monitoring
monitoring
Easy, reusable, non-invasive High selectivity, localized
Motion artifact, prep needed Pain, risk of infection
ummed, Non-invasive, Needle = Localized, Invasive, Specific-Ion = Chemical Analysis
odes → floating electrodes minimize it.
potential measurement.
Working Principle Measured Quantity
Heart depolarization/repolarization
Voltage (mV)
potential
Cortical brain activity μV signals
Muscle fiber action potentials μV–mV range
Direct intracellular contact Intracellular potential
Electrolyte bridge to skin Summed potentials
Penetrates skin Local muscle/nerve activity
Ion-selective membrane Potential ∝ ion activity
Seebeck effect Temperature
Mechanical stress → voltage Pressure, sound
Incident light → current Light intensity
Faraday’s law Flow, velocity
Resistance ∝ displacement/force Position, strain
Inductance ∝ displacement Position
Capacitance ∝ distance/pressure Pressure, displacement
Null deflection voltage balance Unknown resistance
Stress → strain → ΔR Force/Weight
Specific Ion Electrodes
Non-invasive
Depends on membrane (mm-scale)
In solution/sample
Potential ∝ ion activity
Moderate
Interference from other ions
pH, Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, NH₃ measurement
Specific ion selectivity
Cross-sensitivity to other ions
Key Components / Elements Applications
Diagnosis of
Limb/Chest electrodes, Lead system
arrhythmias, MI
Epilepsy, brain
Scalp electrodes (10-20 system)
monitoring
Neuromuscular
Needle/Surface electrodes
disorders
Research, neural
Metal/Micropipette
studies
Plate, floating, suction, disposable
ECG, EEG, EMG
electrodes
EMG,
Monopolar/Bipolar needles intraoperative
monitoring
Na⁺, K⁺, pH
Liquid/Solid membrane + reference
measurement
Temperature
Thermocouple
monitoring
Ultrasound
Quartz, PZT
transducers
Photodiodes, LDR Pulse oximeters
Coil + magnetic field Blood flowmeter
Force, BP
Strain gauge + Wheatstone bridge
measurement
Catheter position,
LVDT
pressure
Respiration
Capacitor plates
monitors
Strain gauge
4 arms resistors + galvanometer
reading
Biomechanics,
Strain gauges, bridge circuit
orthopedics
Master Notes – Biopotentials & Transducers (Ex
1 Biopotentials
1️⃣
Biopotentials are tiny voltages generated by the body due to ionic activity in excitable tissues.
Source: Action potentials in nerves, muscles, or brain.
Types:
ECG: Heart’s electrical activity (depolarization & repolarization).
Leads: Bipolar (I, II, III), Augmented (aVR, aVL, aVF), Chest leads (V1–V6).
Amplitude: ~1 mV
EEG: Brain cortical activity (μV range).
Electrodes placed via 10-20 system.
Waves: Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta (used for epilepsy, sleep disorders).
EMG: Muscle activity potential (used for neuromuscular disorder diagnosis).
EOG: Eye movement potential (used for sleep studies, ophthalmology).
ERG: Retinal potential (eye function studies).
Type Key Points
Very fine tips, metal or glass micropipettes, impedance in
Microelectrodes
MΩ range
Body Surface Electrodes Plate / suction / disposable
Needle Electrodes Monopolar or bipolar, penetrates muscle/nerve
Reference Electrodes Silver-silver chloride, Calomel
pH Electrodes Glass membrane sensitive to H⁺ ions
Specific Ion Electrodes Selectively permeable to Na⁺, K⁺, F⁻, etc.
Transducers
Transducers convert non-electrical quantities → electrical signals.
🔹 Active Transducers (Self-Generating)
Type Principle
Thermoelectric Seebeck effect (temp. difference generates emf)
Piezoelectric Mechanical stress → voltage
Photoelectric Light intensity → current
Faraday’s law (emf induced by moving conductor in
Magnetic Induction
magnetic field)
Passive Transducers (Require Excitation)
Type Principle
Resistive R changes with strain/pressure
Inductive L changes with core position
Capacitive C changes with plate spacing/pressure
4️⃣Measurement Circuits
Wheatstone Bridge
Four-resistor network used to measure unknown resistance precisely.
Condition for balance:
R1R2=R3R4\frac{R1}{R2} = \frac{R3}{R4}R2R1=R4R3
Use: Strain gauge, RTD, and transducer measurements.
Force Transducer
Converts force → strain → resistance change → voltage.
Uses strain gauges arranged in Wheatstone bridge.
Applications: Biomechanics, weight measurement, orthopedic force analysis.
Biochemical Transducers
Measure chemical composition (ions/gases) in body fluids.
Type Working Principle
Reference Electrodes Provide stable potential (Ag/AgCl, Calomel)
pH Electrode Glass membrane selective to H⁺ ions
Blood Gas Electrodes Clark electrode (Pt cathode), Severinghaus CO₂ electrode
Specific Ion Electrodes Selective membrane for Na⁺, K⁺, F⁻
0–20 System (EEG)
Standardized electrode placement method for scalp EEG.
Rule: Distance between adjacent electrodes = 10% or 20% of head circumference.
Electrodes: Fp (front polar), F (frontal), C (central), P (parietal), O (occipital), T (temporal).
Ensures reproducibility and comparability.
Key Principles (Quick Recall)
Seebeck Effect: Temperature difference → emf (thermocouple).
Piezoelectric Effect: Stress → voltage (PZT crystals).
Photoelectric Effect: Light → electrons (photodiode).
Faraday’s Law: Motion in magnetic field → induced emf.
Exam Tips
Compare electrode types (surface vs needle vs microelectrode).
Memorize transducer categories (active vs passive).
Understand bridge circuit balance condition (very common MCQ).
Remember normal physiological values:
pH: 7.38–7.42 (arterial),
PO₂: ~95 mmHg,
PCO₂: ~40 mmHg.
10–20 EEG System – memorize electrode names & their positions.
Piezoelectric materials: Quartz, PZT (lead zirconate titanate) = used in ultrasound.
ansducers (Exam-Oriented)
excitable tissues.
Use
Intracellular recording (research)
ECG, EEG, EMG
EMG, intraoperative monitoring
Stable reference for biochemical
measurements
Blood pH measurement
Electrolyte measurement
Applications
Thermocouples for temperature
Ultrasound transducers, microphones
Pulse oximeters, light meters
Blood flowmeter
Applications
Strain gauge load cells
LVDT for displacement
Pressure, respiration monitors
Clinical Use
Used with indicator electrodes
Blood pH (acid-base balance)
PO₂, PCO₂ measurement
Electrolyte analysis
), T (temporal).
🧾 Table 1 – Elements of Intensive-Care Monitoring
Aspect
Purpose
Parameters Monitored
Components
Features
Clinical Importance
MCQ Pointers
🔧 Table 2 – Diagnosis, Calibration & Repairability of Patient-Mo
Aspect
Diagnosis
Calibration
Repairability
Preventive Maintenance
MCQ Pointers
🧠 Table 3 – Other Instrumentation for Patient Monitoring
Device
ICP Monitor
Fetal Monitor
Capnograph
Glucose Monitor
Cardiac Output Monitor
🏢 Table 4 – Organization of Hospital for Patient Care Monitorin
Aspect
Structure
Advantages
Requirements
Telemetry
MCQ Pointers
⚡ Table 5 – Pacemakers
Aspect
Definition
Indications
Components
Types
Battery
Checks
Complications
MCQ Pointers
⚡ Table 6 – Defibrillators
Aspect
Definition
Working Principle
Types
Energy Range
Safety
Calibration
MCQ Pointers
– Elements of Intensive-Care Monitoring
Details
Continuous surveillance of critically ill patients to detect physiological changes early.
ECG, Heart Rate, Resp. Rate, Invasive & Non-invasive BP, SpO₂, Temperature, EtCO₂,
Cardiac Output (if needed).
Bedside Monitor, Central Nursing Station, Telemetry Unit, Data Recorders, Alarm
System.
Real-time display, Visual & Audible Alarms, Trend Storage, Networking to Central
Station.
Early detection of arrhythmias, shock, hypoxia; reduces mortality in ICUs.
– Vital signs monitored routinely – Alarms must have fail-safe battery backup –
Telemetry allows patient mobility.
– Diagnosis, Calibration & Repairability of Patient-Monitoring Equipment
Details
Functional check, self-test programs, alarm simulation, troubleshooting via service
menu.
Adjustment of device output to match a reference standard using simulators: • ECG
Simulator • NIBP Analyzer • SpO₂ Simulator • Temp & CO₂ Calibrator
Prefer modular design for easy part replacement, PCB swap, minimal downtime.
Periodic cleaning, electrical safety testing, calibration log maintenance, battery health
check.
– Calibration must be periodic – Simulators produce standard physiological signals –
Preventive > Corrective maintenance.
– Other Instrumentation for Patient Monitoring
Principle / Sensor
Ventricular catheter + strain gauge pressure transducer
US Doppler for FHR + TOCO for uterine contractions
Infrared absorption of CO₂
Enzyme-based electrochemical transducer
Thermodilution (Swan-Ganz catheter) or bioimpedance
– Organization of Hospital for Patient Care Monitoring
Details
Bedside monitors → Network → Central Nursing Station → Data Storage/EMR
Integration
Centralized observation of multiple patients, rapid response to alarms, documentation.
Reliable power supply, backup batteries, secure network connection, trained staff.
Wireless monitoring for patient mobility (step-down ICU, post-op).
– Difference between Telemetry vs Bedside – Central station can handle multiple beds
simultaneously.
– Pacemakers
Details
Device that delivers timed electrical pulses to heart to maintain adequate rate &
rhythm.
Bradycardia, SA node dysfunction, AV block, heart failure (CRT).
Pulse Generator (battery + circuitry), Lead System (unipolar/bipolar), Electrode.
• Temporary (external) • Permanent (implantable) • Single chamber (VVI/AAI) • Dual
chamber (DDD)
Lithium-iodide, life ~5–10 yrs.
Pacing threshold, lead integrity, battery status.
Lead dislodgement, infection, battery depletion.
– VVI = Ventricular Demand Pacing – DDD = Dual chamber synchronous pacing –
Lithium-iodide battery.
– Defibrillators
Details
Device delivering controlled high-energy shock to depolarize myocardium & terminate
VF/pulseless VT.
Capacitor charging → Discharge via paddles/pads → Myocardium depolarized → SA
node resets rhythm.
• Manual (Physician sets energy) • AED (Automatic Rhythm Detection + Shock) • ICD
(Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator)
• Monophasic: 200–360 J • Biphasic: 120–200 J (more effective)
Announce "Clear" before discharge, ensure no one touches patient/bed.
Periodic energy output test with defibrillator analyzer.
– Biphasic preferred due to less myocardial damage – VF is main indication – Pads
reduce risk of burns vs paddles.
onitoring Equipment
Clinical Use Key Notes
Must be zeroed to atmospheric
Head injury, hydrocephalus
pressure before use
Obstetrics, Labor Room Normal FHR: 120–160 bpm
Displays EtCO₂ waveform
Anesthesia, Ventilation monitoring
(capnogram)
Requires calibration with control
Diabetes care
solution
Measures preload, afterload, CO
Critical care hemodynamics
trends
