■ Brain & Behavior – Detailed Psychology Notes
(Yale Course)
1. Brain vs. Spinal Cord
The nervous system is divided into the brain and the spinal cord. Not all actions require the
brain. Some actions are controlled at the level of the spinal cord – these are called
reflexes. Examples include sucking reflexes in newborns, pulling your hand away from a
hot object, or vomiting. These occur without conscious control and without requiring brain
involvement. However, higher-order functions such as reasoning, memory, perception,
language, and moral decision-making depend on the brain.
2. Subcortical Structures
Subcortical structures are located beneath the cerebral cortex. They control many
automatic, vital, and basic functions required for survival. Key subcortical structures
include:
• Medulla – Controls vital life functions such as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure,
and swallowing. Damage to the medulla is often fatal.
• Cerebellum – Known as the 'little brain', it controls balance, posture, and coordination
of movements. It contains around 30 billion neurons, making it highly significant for
motor control. Damage results in jerky, uncoordinated movements (ataxia).
• Hypothalamus – Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, sex drive, and emotions.
It serves as a bridge between the nervous system and the endocrine (hormonal)
system. For example, when dehydrated, the hypothalamus triggers the sensation of
thirst.
3. Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain and is responsible for most
higher-order human abilities. It is folded and crumpled, covering an area of about 2 feet² if
unfolded but only about 3 mm thick. Compared to other species, humans and primates
have a much larger cortex. The cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left and right), and
each hemisphere is divided into four lobes with specialized functions.
• Frontal Lobe – Located at the front of the brain. Responsible for planning, reasoning,
problem-solving, decision-making, voluntary movements (via the motor cortex), speech
production (Broca’s area), personality, and moral judgment. Damage can lead to
impulsivity, personality changes, or loss of moral control.
• Parietal Lobe – Located near the top and back of the head. Processes sensory
information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Also important for
spatial awareness and body orientation.
• Occipital Lobe – Located at the back of the brain. Primary center for vision. Damage
can cause partial or complete blindness.
• Temporal Lobe – Located on the sides near the ears. Responsible for hearing,
understanding language (Wernicke’s area), and memory storage. Damage can result
in difficulties understanding speech.
4. Brain Maps (Topographical Representation)
The cortex contains maps that correspond to different body functions. These maps are
topographical, meaning areas close together in the body are represented by areas close
together in the brain. Important maps include:
• Motor Cortex – Controls voluntary movements. Stimulating a region of this cortex
causes movement in the corresponding body part.
• Somatosensory Cortex – Processes sensations of touch, temperature, pressure, and
pain from different body parts.
• Visual Map – Located in the occipital lobe, responsible for processing vision.
• Auditory Map – Located in the temporal lobe, responsible for processing sound.
These maps are distorted – they do not represent body parts according to their actual size,
but rather according to the sensitivity or motor control required. For example, the hands
and face are enormously represented compared to the back or trunk. This is called the
'cortical homunculus'.
5. Disorders from Brain Damage
Brain damage to specific areas can cause characteristic disorders:
• Apraxia – Difficulty performing coordinated actions despite having the physical ability.
Example: unable to wave goodbye or bring food to the mouth.
• Agnosia – Disorder of perception where a person can see but cannot recognize
objects. A subtype is Prosopagnosia (face blindness), where individuals cannot
recognize familiar faces.
• Sensory Neglect – Ignoring one half of space (often the left side). For example,
drawing a clock but placing all numbers only on the right side.
• Aphasia – Language disorder. Two major types: • Broca’s Aphasia (expressive):
difficulty producing speech, broken and slow speech. • Wernicke’s Aphasia (receptive):
fluent but meaningless speech, with poor comprehension.
• Frontal Lobe Damage – Famous case: Phineas Gage. Damage leads to personality
change, loss of self-control, inability to restrain impulses, and moral judgment deficits.
6. How We Know Brain Functions
• Brain Scans – Techniques such as MRI, fMRI, and PET allow researchers to see
which brain areas are active when performing tasks.
• Natural Experiments – Cases of brain injury (strokes, tumors, accidents) allow
scientists to study which functions are lost when specific brain regions are damaged.
7. Key Takeaways
• The brain is specialized – different areas control different functions (localization of
function).
• Damage to the brain directly affects thought, language, perception, and personality,
proving that the mind is not separate from the brain (an argument against dualism).
