GENERAL FORMAT OF THE REPORT TO BE SUBMITTED FOR EACH

EXPERIMENT

Page Size : A4

Cover Page : Should contain the following information:

No. and Name of : CH292: Unit Operations Lab-I

the Lab.

Title of the Experiment :

Experiment No. :

Date of Conduction :

Date of Submission :

Submitted by :

Other Members:

1. ________________________ 2. _________________________

3. ________________________ 4. _________________________

5. ________________________

Group No. _________________

Contents of Report:

S. Headings Description
No.
1. Objective Mention the objectives of the experiment point wise.

2. Theory It should be brief and to the point. Detailed derivations should be

omitted. However, relevant reference may be given.

3 Description of the A short but otherwise complete description of the experimental

Experimental set up setup including all-important dimensions should be mentioned
along with a neat sketch of the experimental setup. The sketch
should be drawn with pencil only.

4. Experimental Describe experimental procedure point wise. Write them in past

Procedure tense

5. Sample Calculations Complete calculation of one run should be given. Each group
member should give sample calculations for separate runs.

6. Observations and Observations should be given in tabular form. Results should be

Results presented in tabular or graphical form. All the graphs should be
drawn with pencil or on Microsoft Excel only.

7. Discussion of the Discuss critically the results obtained. If the results show some
Results trend, discuss that also.

8. Conclusions Important conclusions drawn from the study should be

mentioned point wise.

9. Sources of Errors Errors in the experimentation should be identified and their

sources be discussed.

10. Suggestions Suggestions regarding the overall improvement of the

experimental setup/ measurements should be discussed briefly.
 Department of Chemical Engineering,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

CH 292: UNIT OPERATIONS LAB I

General Instructions:
1. Experiments will be conducted in groups of 3 to 4 students. The same group will
continue through out the course.
2. For every session of experiment, students are required to come to the laboratory
class prepared with the experimental procedure, the theory, the basic equations,
the observation tables, and the calculations etc. The associated teachers will
occasionally test the preparation and knowledge of the students.
3. Feel free to ask any doubts and questions to the teacher. For difficulties in
operation of the equipment ask the teachers and laboratory technical assistants.
4. Make a rough sketch of the experimental setup and note down on it all the needed
dimensions and information.
5. All observations and sketches are to be made only on A4 size sheets separately by
each student. Get the signature of anyone of the associated teachers on the
observation and sketch at the end of the class and attach them with the final
report. Observations should be complete with all required data, and information.
6. Each group should note at least two experimental runs duly verified by the teacher
during performance of the experiment. Failing which the observation sheet will be
considered as incomplete.
7. Report of the performed experiment is to be submitted positively on the next
practical turn by each student separately. Without submitting the previous reports,
students will not be allowed to perform any new experiment and shall be marked
absent on that turn.
8. At the end of semester, each student is required to compile all of his corrected and
updated reports in one file with proper indexing and submit at the time of his
viva-voce examination.
Title of Experiment: Flow Through Straight Circular Tube.
Objectives:
a. To obtain a p vs Q plots.
b. To obtain f vs Re plot and compare it with standard plot.
c. To obtain the critical Reynolds number of flow.
Introduction:
Pipes and tubes are very convenient means, for transport of fluids with the aid of gravitational
head or suitable pumps and blowers. Knowledge of energy required for the fluid flow through
pipes is very useful to
a. Estimate the size of pumps or head required to obtained a flow rate in pipe system,
b. Estimate the maximum flow rate possible in a pipe system with a given pump/head.
c. Estimate the optimum size of pipe for a flow system, etc.
d. The energy requirement depends on the rate of flow, type of fluid, and size and roughness
of pipe wall.
Scope of the Experiment:
This experiment is aimed to train the students to take observations of the frictional pressure loss
in the pipe with the help of U-tube manometers and flow rate of the fluid in the pipe by directly
collecting volume of fluid for fixed times. They can observe that pressure loss varies with flow
rate and the way it varies and how their data can be analyzed further to predict critical Reynolds
number and to obtain standard plot. The pipes used are smooth stainless steel and rough
galvanized iron pipes and fluid used is water, a Newtonian fluid.
Theory:
When a Newtonian fluid flows in a steady state through a straight pipe, energy is dissipated in
overcoming the friction of the pipe wall. The energy dissipated-depends on the properties of
flowing fluid and the confining pipe and their relative motion. The significant properties of the
pipe are internal diameter, d , length, L , and the relative roughness,  / d , where  is the
average height of the projection of roughness inside the pipe, and the significant properties of
Newtonian fluids are their density, and viscosity  .
Thus, if we perform dimensional analysis the pressure loss for pipe flow p can be related to
cross-sectional average velocity as:
p  p  d , L,  ,  ,V 
=Kd a Lb  c  dV e
This leads to the relationship of the form:
y x
p  d   dV  
2   K 
2 V  L    
Where the left hand side term is called Fanning friction factor and denoted as f , and dV  / 
is termed as Reynolds number and denoted as Re . For laminar flow of Newtonian fluids, the
relation is theoretically obtainable as
 f  16 / Re
and is known as Hagen. Poiseuille law. For turbulent flow of newtonian fluids in smooth pipe,
the Blasius Resistance law:
f  0.0791 Re 1/ 4
is a good approximation within the range 3000<Re<103. Colebrook's correlation,
1
 3.6 log  Re 7  5 103  Re  108
f
has larger range of applicability. For turbulent flow in rough pipes, Swamee and Jain correlation
is useful.
1   5.72 
 4 log   9 10-6   / d  102 ,5 103  Re  108
f  3.7 d Re 
Experimental Procedure:
1. Sketch and study the experimental set-up. Note the dimensions of the two straight pipes
(inside diameter and length between the two pressure taps) and specifications of the pump.
Also note the types of valves used, etc.
2. Fill the tank with fresh water, open the by pass line. See that the valves feeding the straight
pipes are closed. Switch on the pump/in the tank. Slowly open the needle valve feeding one
of the straight tube. Open the final outlet valve at the storage tank. Check that no where in the
straight tube and manometer air bubbles are present. If present, get the same removed. Wait
till the flow becomes steady as indicated by the level of manometric fluid in the two limbs of
the manometer. Note down the level of the two limbs. Collect sufficient volume of the water
discharging in the storage tank. Note down the time of the collection accurately. Open the
needle valve slowly to give a little higher flow rate. Repeat the measurement of pressure drop
and for different flow rates. Note down the temperature of the water.
3. Check that you have obtained enough reading in the laminar flow regime. Note that you are
required to obtain a log/log plot of f vs Re, and hence to insure that data points are spread
uniformly, take readings at smaller intervals at lower flow rates, but interval can be increased
as flow rate increases. Repeat the experiment for the other straight tube.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Convert the pressure drop and flow rate observations in N/m2 and m3/s units, respectively.
Note that pressure drop is given by
p    m   f  g  h1  h2 
where,  m is the density of the manometric fluid,  f is the density of experimental fluid,
water in this case, and h1 and h2 are levels in the manometer limbs.
2. Plot these points on p , N/m2, and Q , m3/s graph and draw smooth curve to give variation
of pressure drop with flow rate for the two tubes, Now prepare a separate table by reading the
valves of p at different flow rates from this smooth curve. Calculate f from
  p   d 
f  2  
 2 V   L 
V  4Q /  d 2
Re  dV  / 
and obtain a log-log plot of f vs Re. Sudden break in the slope of this curve indicates the
change of flow regime from laminar to turbulent. Also plot the curves for the standard
correlation's for f vs Re and compare with your curve.
Discussion:
1. In books, f Vs Re is plotted on log-log graph. It is found that the roughness factor
 / d influences f only in the turbulent region  Re  4000  and not in laminar region
 Re  2100  . Explain why is it so?
2. In case of an oil (sp gr. = 0.9 and viscosity = 4.5mN.s will the plot of p vs Q coincide
with the curve for water? Give reasons for your answer.
References:
1. McCabe W.L., and Smith J.C., 'Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering'4th Ed. Mc
Graw Hill, Kogakusha (1985). 75-88, Fi.g 5-9.
2. Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 'Transport Phenomena', John Wiley and Sons Inc. (1960).
Title of Experiment: Flow Through An Annulus
Objectives:
a. To determine the pressure drop due to friction for flow of water through the annulus of
two concentric pipes and to obtain p Vs Q plot.
b. The calculate pressure drops using modified Fannings' equation and compare with the
experimental result.
Scope of the Experiment:
Double pipe heat exchangers are used in industries for heat interchange between a hot and a cold
fluid. There will be pressure drop due to friction as the fluid flow through the inner pipe and also
as the other fluid flows through the annulus.
Theory and Formula:
Fanning's equation is used to determine friction loss:
2
p 2 fLV
h fs  s 
g gD
where
h fs = skin friction loss, in meters of fluid
ps = Pressure loss due to skin friction (i.e. friction between fluid and pipe wall)
 = density of the fluid flowing inside the annulus or pipe.
f = fanning friction factor
L = length of flow, m
D = diameter, m
V = velocity of the fluid, m/s
In the case of straight pipes of circular cross section the inside diameter of the pipe is used in
calculating area of cross section and the friction losses whereas in case of non circular cross
section an equivalent Diameter, De is used. It is defined as four time the hydraulic radius rH
which is obtained by dividing the cross sectional area by wetted perimeter. The pressure drop
allowance in an exchanger is the static fluid pressure, which may be expended to drive the fluid
through the exchanger.
When a fluid flows in a conduit having other than a circular cross-section, such as an annulus, it
is convenient to express heat transfer coefficient and friction factor by the same types of equation
and curves used for pipes and tubes. To permit this type of representation for annulus heat
transfer, it has been found advantageous to employ an equivalent diameter De .
Cross Sectional area
De  4rH 
Wetted Perimeter
For circular pipe of diameter D

De  4  D 2 /  D  D
4
For a concentration pipe with inner pipe having outside diameter d o and the outer pipe having an
 2
inside diameter Di , the annular area of cross section = ( D  d 2 ) and the wetted perimeter
4 i o
4  / 4   Di2  d o2 
=   Di  d o  De for annulus = 4rH    Di  d o  Fanning equation is modified
  Di  d o 
by substituting De for D .
Experimental Set-up:
Water from a constant level tank is pumped through the annulus of concentric pipe units. There
are two concentric pipe units of different annular space connected in parallel. Pressure taps are
provided at two points along with annular length for measuring pressure drop by a differential
type monometer using CCL4/Hg as the monometric fluid. The flow rate is controlled by needle
valve. After leaving the duct the water flows back into the tank.
Experimental Procedure:
Start the pump and adjust the flow rate with the needle valve. Start with minimum flow rate.
When steady state is reached, as indicated by levels in the two limbs of manometer, connected to
manometer taps, take the manometer readings and measure the time for collecting certain amount
of water leaving the duct. Repeat the experiment by gradually increasing the flow rate.
For each flow rate, take the reading of the mercury manometer for each annular arrangement.
Tabulate the Data as follows:
Concentric Pipe:
Unit 1:
I.D. of outer pipe Di1 =
O.D. of inner pipe d o1 =
Length of pipe L1 =
Unit 1:
I.D. of outer pipe Di 2 =
O.D. of inner pipe d o 2 =
Length of pipe L2 =

Calculations and Results:

1. Pressure drop due to flow in annulus 1
P1  h1   m   w  g
Pressure drop due to flow in annulus 2
P2  h2   m   w  g
2. Cross sectional area of annulus 1
A1   / 4  Di2  d o2  m2
 Velocity of water through annulus
V 1  Q / A1 m/s
De1  Di1  d o1
Reynolds Number Re  De1V 1  / 
Pressue drop in cm of water
 LV 2 
h1   4 f1 1 1 100
 De1 

Where f1 is read from chart of f vs Re (Fig. 24 process heat transfer by D.Q. Kern)
Compare the calculated pr. Drop with experimentally obtained values.
Similar calculation is done for annulus 2.
Plot on the same graph, pressure drop due to friction, in cm of water, vs volumetric flow rate,
liter/s, for both units.
Questions:
Water is to be conveyed over a distance of 100m at the rate of 1 litre/sec. The outlet end of
the pipe should be 12.5 mm ID. Two alternative are proposed.
1. to have the pipe of the same diameter for the entire distance.
2. to have a pipe of inside diameter 25 cm for the first 50m and then 12.5 mm ID pipe for
the rest of the 50m.
What will be the ratio of pressure drop due to friction in the two cases?
References:
1. Kern, D.Q., 'Process Heat Transfer,' McGraw Hill Internet. Book Co.
2. McCabe and Smith, 'Unit Operations in Chemical Engg.', 4th Ed. McGraw Hall Book Co.
(1986).
3. Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 'Transport Phenomena', John Wiley and Sons Inc. (1960).
Title of Experiment: Capillary Flow Viscometer
Objective:
To determine whether a given fluid is Newtonian, if not, whether it follows the power law, if yes,
then to determine the values of o and n.
Scope of Experiment:
Most of the fluids of industrial importance such as thick solutions, slurries, oil, paints, emulsion,
polymers etc. do not posses a linear relationship between shear stress and the shear rate
developed within the fluid. Analysis of transport processes in such fluid thus requires a
knowledge of relationship between the shear stress and the shear rates. The experimental set-up
used here is helpful in determining the nature of fluid.
Theory:
Some of the non-Newtonian fluid follows the power law relationship between shear stress and
shear rate as given below:
dv
rz =  rz   z (1)
dr
n 1
dv
where   0 z
dr
 rz = shear stress
dvz / dr = shear rate
 = non--Newtonian viscosity
0 and n = Parameter for power law fluid
If such fluid flows at a volumetric flow rate Q through a circular tube of diameter d and causes a
pressure difference of P between two points at a distance L then under fully developed laminar
and steady condition the following relationship can be obtained:
1/ n 1/ n
32Q  P d  4n  1 
    (2)
d3  4 L  3 n  1  0 
Thus for a power law fluid, a log-log plot of 32Q /  d 3 vs P d / 4 L will be a straight line. The
slope of the straight line gives the value of n , and 0 can obtained by its intercept on ordinate. If
value of n equals to 1, then the fluid will be a Newtonian fluid.
Experimental Set-up:
The experimental set-up consists of six capillaries of different lengths and diameters which
constitute 3 pairs of attached to the bottom of a tank vertically. Three different levels of water are
provided to create different pressure head in the capillaries.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Make a clean sketch of the set-up.
2. Keep all the capillaries closed and the value for the first constant level open.
3. Fill the tank and maintain a constant over flow.
4. Open the capillaries one by one and measure the flow rate through each capillary.
 5. Repeat the experiment for second and third constant level of water.
Observations and Calculations:
P can be calculated for each capillary flow and constant water level by P   gh
where h = hc  ht  hl
hc = height of the capillary
ht = height of the tank
hl = height of the liquid level from top of the tank
From plot Q vs P for each set of capillary obtain P at the same flow rate for both the
length. The difference of these pressure drops will give the actual pressure drop for the length of
the tube equal to the difference of the two lengths of the capillaries. From these data of Q vs P
plot a curve 32Q /  d 3 vs P d / 4 L on a log-log graph paper.
Results and Discussion:
1. Plot P vs Q for each set of capillary (3 plots)
2. Plot 32Q /  d 3 vs P d / 4 L on log-log graph paper (one plot)
3. Find the value of n and 0 from the plot in (2)
Answer the following questions:
a. Why two capillaries of two different lengths but same diameter are used in the set-up?
b. Derive the equation (2)
c. What are the sources of error in this experiment?
d. Name few Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Title of Experiment: Flow Through Helical Tube Coils
Objectives:
a. To obtain the coiling effect factor vs Reynolds number plot.
b. To obtain the critical Reynols number of flow for the given coil.
c. To compare the experimental data with the available correlations.
Introduction:
This experiment is just like the experiment on ‘Flow through straight tube’ and differs only in
that the tube is helically curved instead being straight. Due to curvature in the tube, the fluid
particle no longer flow parralel to the tube axis but flow in a pattern called ‘Double Helical
Flow’ or ‘Secondary Flow’. The important effects of the secondary flow in curved tubes as
compared to the straight tube flow are:
i. Changed frictional loss
ii. Changed critical Reynolds number
iii. Increased heat transfer coefficient and
iv. Decreased axial dispersion.
For the advantages of high degree of compactness (requirement of less space and weight) and
above mentioned transport characteristics, coils are extensively used as heat exchangers,
chemical reactors, precision, viscometers, blood oxygenators, etc.
Pipe bends, turns and helical coils fall in the category of constant curvature curved tubes,
whereas specially curved tubes coils have varying curvature. Flow through curved tubes, occurs
in a number of heat transfer applications. Usually such coils are immersed in a second fluid.
In curved tubes, the momentum of the fluid rounding the curve causes the velocity profile to be
distorted. The maximum velocity no longer occurs at the tube centre line but nearer the wall at
the outside of the coils bends. Visual studies have indicated the presence of secondary flow
patterns in which the fluid flows out-wart from the centre of the tube to the top of the bend and
then around the outside in a pair of loops. The secondary flow pattern, often called the double-
eddy or Dean effect, stabilizes laminar flow and increases the transition Reynolds number.
The effect of coil curvature is substantially greater in laminar flow than in turbulent flow. For
sufficiently large curvature and just before the transition, a given length of coiled pipe or tubing
may required five time the pressure drop of a straight length at the same flow rate. Thus the
correlation for curved tubes can be highly significant.
Scope of the Experiment:
The main aim of this experiment is to acquaint the students with the hydrodynamics of helical
coil tube flow. This will help in understanding the phenomena of increased pressure drop and
stability of flow.
Helical coils have constant curvature. As contrast to spiral coils, leaving only a small entrance
region, the velocity profile is fully developed. As found by earlier researchers, the flow in helical
coils is weakly characterized by a dimensionless number.
De  Rs d/D
Known as Dean number, named after Dean who was first to theoretically analysis flow in curved
tubes. Here d, is the inside diameter of he tube and D is the coil diameter.
Prandtl has given the following correlation for laminar flow.
P
C  f c / f s  c  0.37De0.53
Ps
Where C is called coiling effect factor, which is the ratio of the pressure drop in the coil to the
pressure drop in the straight tube of the same diameter and length at the same flow rate. f c and
f s are fanning friction factor for the coiled and the corresponding straight tube.
Shaukat Ali (2001) has listed the various other available correlations for pressure drop in helical
coils, and from the analysis of their own data has arived at the following set correlations:
Eu  G rhc =38 Re-1 Re < Recritll
Eu  G rhc =5.25Re-2/3 Recritll < Re < Recritl
-1/3
Eu  G rhc =0.31Re Recritl < Re < Recritm
-1/8
Eu  G rhc =0.045Re Re> Recritm
Where Recritll , Recritl , and Recritm are critical Reynolds number for transition from low laminar to
laminar flow, critical Reynolds number for transition from laminar to mixed flow, and critical
Reynolds number for transition from the mixed to the turbulent flow, respectively, G rhc is the
geometrical number for regular helical coil flow given by  d 0.85 Deq0.15 / Lc  , d is the inside
diameter of the tube, Lc is the length of the coiled portion of the tube, Deq is the equivalent

 2

diameter of the coil defined by p 2 +  D  / , p is the distance between the two consecutive
turns of the coil and D is the diameter of the coil.
Thus there are three critical values of Reynolds number at which the helical coil flow changes
nature, and the flow has four requires of flow. The first regime is up to the first critical Reynolds
number, Recritll , and is termed as low laminar flow regime. The second regime lies between the
first critical Reynolds. Number and the second critical Reynolds number, Recritl , and is termed as
laminar flow regime. The third regime lies between the second critical Reynolds number and the
third critical Reynolds number, Recritm , and is termed as mixed flow regime. The fourth and last
regime is that of turbulent flow and lies beyond the third critical Reynolds number.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Sketch the experimental setup. Note down all the important dimensions mentioned on the
panel board. Measure the diameter of the tube by a traveling microscope.
2. Fill the tank with fresh water. Open the bypass line. See that the valves feeding the straight
and coil pipes are closed.
3. Start the pump. Note down the temperature of the water in the tank.
4. Slowly open one of the needle valve and the water outlet valve. Check that nowhere in the
line, there is air bubble present. If present, get the same removed.
5. Measure the flow rate and note the critical Reynolds number and check that you have
obtained enough readings in the laminar flow regime. For the measurements in the turbulent
flow regimes, note that you are required to obtained log-log plot between coiling effect factor
and Reynolds number, and hence to insure that data points are uniformly spread, take
readings at smaller intervals at lower flow rates, but interval can be increased at higher flow
rates.
6. Repeat the experiment for the straight tube.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Obtain smooth curves for pressure drop versus flow rate both for the straight tube and the
helical coil.
2. Note that helical coil has straight tube attached at its two ends. In order to get the pressure
drop for only the coiled portion of the coil, subtract from the total pressure drop in the
coil, the pressure drop in the straight tube portion as follows:
3. At a fixed flow rate, obtain the pressure drop in the straight tube ∆Pst. Calculate pressure drop
per unit lengths by dividing it by the length of the straight tube, Lst and then multiply by the
length of the straight tubes attached with the coil Lstc to get pressure drop in the straight tube
attached to the coil,
Pstc  Pst . Lstc / Lst
4. Subtract this form the pressure drop in the total coil, ∆Pct to get pressur drop in the helical
coil portion only ∆Pc at that fixed flow rate
Pc  Pct  Pstc
If the coiled length Lc is instead stretched to straight tube, then the pressure drop would be
instead,
Ps =Pst . Lc /Lst
5. Now calculate the coiling effect factor by
C  Pc / Ps
at that fixed flow rate.
6. Repeat the calculation at other flow rates and obtain a plot of log C vs log Re . Sudden break
in the slope of this curve indicates the change of flow regime from laminar flow to turbulent.
7. Also obtain log C vs log Re plot from the given correlations. Compare the experimental
values of Recrit and C from those predicted by the given correlations.
Reference:
1. Notes on ‘Flow through Curved Channels’, kept in the laboratory.
2. Goldstein, ‘Modern Development in Fluid Mechanics Vol. 1’, available in Seminar of
Mechanical Engg. Department.
3. Brodkey and Hershey, ‘Transport Phenomena a Unified Approach’ available in the
Departmental Seminar Library.
4. Shaukat Ali, ‘Pressure drop correlations for flow through regular helical coil tubes’ Fluid
Dynamics Research, 28, 295-310, 2001.
Title of Experiment: Flow Through A Spiral Tube Coil
Objectives:
a. To obtain the coiling effect factor versus Reynolds number plot.
b. To obtain the critical Reynolds number for the given spiral coil.
c. To obtain the Eu  G . versus Re plot to verify the Shaukat and Shadhadri correlations.
Introduction:
This experiment is just like the experiment on 'Flow through Helical Tube Coil'. Unlike the
helical coil, spiral coil has varying curvature, maximum at the innermost turn and minimum at
the outermost turn. Due to this, the intensity of the secondary flow continuously decreases along
the tube axial direction from the innermost turn to the outermost turn.
Since the stability of coil flow depends on the intensity of the secondary flow, this is also
responsible for the presence of two critical Reynolds number of flow. One, when the turbulence
just appears at the outmost turn and secondly when the complete coil gets filled with turbulent
flow.
Spiral coil heat exchangers are particularly useful in situation where the available space is a
plane. These coils differ the way pitch, the distance between the consecutive turns of the coil
changes along with the length. Ali has classified them in the following well-defined
configurations:
1. Archimedean Spiral
2. Ascending Equiangular Spiral
3. Negative Logarithmic Spiral Coil
The Archimedean spiral coils have the property of constant pitch and the pitch of the ascending
equiangular increases while that of the negative logarithmic spiral decreases as the spiral recedes
away from the pole, the centre of the coil.
The polar equation of the Archimedean spiral curve which the axis of the tube of the
Archimedean spiral coil makes is given by
r  a
Where a  p / 2 and p is pitch, the d instance between consecutive turns a constant for the
Archimedean spiral coils. If Rmin and Rmax are the minimum and maximum radius of the coil, the
length of the Archimedean spiral is given by
Rmax 2
2 d 
Las   r    1dr
Rmin dr
 a   2  1 d

  R 2 
 Rmax  
2
a  Rmax  Rmax  max
 1    log e   1   
2 a  a   a  a  
  
   R 2 
 Rmax  
2
a  Rmax  Rmax  max
 1    log e   1   
2 a  a   a  a  
  

a  Rmin  R 2 
 Rmin  
2
 Rmin  min
 1    log e   1   
2 a  a   a  a  
  
Scope of the Experiment:
The aim of this experiment is to educate the students about the difference in
hydrodynamics of straight tube, constant curvature and varying curvature tube flows. It
will also help students to appreciate the procedure of the development of correlation
and verification of the developed correlations.
By performing the dimensional analysis
P  P V ,  ,  , d , Rmax , Rmin , p  it can be shown that the pressure drop across coil can
be correlated as
Eu.G as  a Reb
Where Eu =P/  2 V 2  is the Euler number of flow and G as is a geometrical number, a
combination of geometrical parameters for the Archimedean spiral coils.
Shaukat (2000) has obtained the following correlations, based on their experimental data:
Eu G as  230 Re 0.9 for low laminar flow Re  800
Eu G as  46.52 Re 2 / 3 for laminar flow 800  Re  6300
Eu.G as  1.23 Re 1/ 4 for mixed flow 6300  Re  10, 000
Eu.G as  0.78 Re 1/ 5 for turbulent flow Re > 10, 000
pd 1/ 2
Where Eu.G as 
( Rmax )3/ 4 ( Rmax  Rmin )3/ 4
The flow in an Archimedean spiral coil remains quite stable up to a Reynolds number of
800 called low laminar critical Reynolds number, the flow up to Reynolds number of
6300 remains laminar called laminar critical Reynolds number, above this Reynolds
number there will be mixed flow in the coil up to a Reynolds number of 10,000 called
mixed flow critical Reynolds number. Above this Reynolds number, the coil will be
fully filled with turbulent flow. Thus there are four regimes of flow. The first regime is
that of low laminar flow, the second regime is that of laminar flow, the third regime is
that of mixed flow, and the final and last regime is that of turbulent flow.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Sketch the experimental setup. Note down all the important dimensions mentioned on the
panel board. Measure the diameter of the tube by a traveling microscope.
2. Fill the tank with fresh water. Open the bypass line. See that the valves feeding the straight
and coil pipes are closed.
3. Start the pump. Note down the temperature of the water in the tank.
4. Slowly open one of the needle valve and the water outlet valve. Check that nowhere in the
line, there is air bubble present. If present, get the same removed.
5. Measure the flow rate and note the critical Reynolds number and check that you have
obtained enough readings in the laminar flow regime. For the measurements in the turbulent
flow regimes, note that you are required to obtained log-log plot between coiling effect factor
and Reynolds number, and hence to insure that data points are uniformly spread, take
readings at smaller intervals at lower flow rates, but interval can be increased at higher flow
rates.
6. Repeat the experiment for the straight tube.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Obtain smooth curves for pressure drop versus flow rate both for the straight tube and the
helical coil.
2. Note that helical coil has straight tube attached at its two ends. In order to get the pressure
drop for only the coiled portion of the coil, subtract from the total pressure drop in the
coil, the pressure drop in the straight tube portion as follows:
3. At a fixed flow rate, obtain the pressure drop in the straight tube ∆Pst. Calculate pressure
drop per unit lengths by dividing it by the length of the straight tube, Lst and then
multiply by the length of the straight tubes attached with the coil Lstc to get pressure drop
in the straight tube attached to the coil,
Pstc  Pst . Lstc / Lst
4. Substract this form the pressure drop in the total coil, ∆Pct to get pressur drop in the
helical coil portion only ∆Pc at that fixed flow rate
Pc  Pct  Pstc
If the coiled length Lc is instead stretched to straight tube, then the pressure drop would be
instead,
Ps =Pst . Lc /Lst
5. Now you get
C  Pc / Ps
at that fixed flow rate Repeat the calculation at other flow rates and obtain a plot of log C vs
log Re . Sudden break in the slope of this curve indicates the change of flow regime from
laminar flow to turbulent.
6. Also obtain log C vs log Re plot from the given correlations. Compare the experimental
values of Recrit and C from those predicted by the given correlations.
7. For this experiment, also verify the Shaukat correlations by plotting log  Eu.G as  vs
log Re obtained from the experimental data and those from the correlations.
8. Also note that for the determination of pitch, in this case, the outer diameter of the
tube is also to be determined.
Questions:
1. Perform the dimensional analysis suggested above.
2. Discuss the sources of error in the experiment.
Additional Reference:
1. Shaukat and Sheshadri, 'Pressure Drop in Archimedean Spiral Tubes', I and EC
Process Design and Development, 10(3), 328, 71.
2. Ali, S. 'Pressure Drop Performance of Coiled Tubes', Chem. Engg. Res. Des., 67,
428, 1989, Institution of Chemical Engineers, London.
3. Ali, S., 'Pressure drop characteristics of coiled tube flow, Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Recent Advances in Experimental Fluid Mechanics',
IIT, Kanpur, 2000.
Title of Experiment: Verification of Bernoulli's Theorem
Objective:
To investigate the validity of Bernoulli's theorem as applied to the flow of water in a
tube of varying cross section.
Theory:
When an inviscid incompressible fluid is flowing through a duct under steady state then
according to Bernoulli's theorem its total mechanical energy remain conserved. The
mechanical energy constitutes Kinetic energy, pressure energy and potential energy of
the fluid. If the fluid of density  is moving with cross-sectionally average velocity V
at an attitude Z and a pressure P then the total mechanical energy at a cross section per
unit volume of the fluid is given by (without friction loss and pump work).
1 2 1 2
1 V 1  P1   gz1   2 V 2  P2   gz2
2 2
Where a is the kinetic energy correction factor equal to      ds  /(V ) S
s
3 3
and S is

cross sectional area and V    ds  / S

Considering the balance between any two section of the duct 1 and 2, the Bernoulli's
theorem can be written as
1 2 1 2
1 V 1  P1   gz1   2 V 2  P2   gz2
2 2
For a horizontal setup z1 =z 2 and thus the above equation can be written as
2
V P
   constant
2g g
The above equation is known as Bernoulli's Equation. Each expression of the above
equation represents various heads. The first term is the velocity head and the second
term is the pressure head. The sum of these two heads equals to total head which
remains constant.
Experimental Setup:
The experimental setup consists of a tapering tube (test section) made of Perspex
to provide varying cross section. Pressure tapings are provided at various sections of
the tube to measure the pressure head. The two ends of the tube are provided with
union, which may be connected directly to the hydraulic bench and outlet to pass the
liquid through tube. A hypodermic with a pressure taping is also provided to measure
the total head at any cross section of the tube. An additional taping is provided to
facilitate setting up. All the pressure tapings are connected to a bank of pressurized
manometer tubes. Pressurization of manometer tube is facilitated by the coupling it to a
hand pump, provided with the setup. The outlet of the tube is provided with a control
valve, which is used to regulate the flow rate of liquid through the tube. The whole
apparatus is kept and attached to a hydraulic bench which is provided with the pump
etc. to cause a flow through tube.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Make a clean sketch of the setup and note on it the dimensions of various
sections.
2. Level the apparatus on hydraulic bench using the adjustable screws.
3. Fill the apparatus manometer tube with liquid to discharge all pocket of air from
the system and ensure all connecting pipe are free from air.
a. Conversion flow.
b. Divergent flow.
4. Adjust the inlet feed and flow control valve to combine the flow rate and system
pressure in order to get the highest and lowest manometer level. Use hand pump
at the air inlet to raise the air pressure above the liquid columns.
5. Measure the flow rate and reading of each manometer tube.
6. Insert the hypodermic probe to the end parallel position of duct and move it into
tapered portion 1cm at a time and note its distance from parallel portion. Also
note the reading of the manometer tube attached to it.
7. Repeat from step 5 for different flow rates.
8. Stop the feed, drain off the apparatus, withdraw the probe fully, undo the
coupling, reverse the test section and replace the coupling.
9. Repeat from Step 2.
Observations and Calculations:
Flow rate can e computed by collecting a volume of liquid from tube for a known time.
The velocity at any cross section can be determined by dividing the flow rate by its
cross section area. The pressure head can directly read from manometer readings. For
calculations of total head plot a curve total head vs probe position. Obtain total head at
various positions from this graph.
Results and Discussion:
1. Find velocity head and pressure head for each cross section. Check whether the
summation of these two heads is constant, if not, why?
2. Check whether the summation of the two heads is equal to the total head measure
by the probe-manometer, if not, explain the reasons.
3. Comment on the validity of Bernoulli's equation for the system tested.
4. Established the mathematical form of Bernoulli's theorem by applying a
mechanical energy balance between any two sections of the tube.
 Title of Experiment: Gravity Thickening
Objectives:
To Study the settling characteristic of chemical sludge and to compare the
thickening and clarification area requirements of a continuous thickener.
Theory:
Design of Continuous Thickener:
The design involves choosing a desired thickened sludge solids concentration, C u and
drawing a line from this value tangent to the underside of the flux curve. The
intercept of the ordinate is the limiting flux G L or that solids flux which controls the
thickening operation, in a continuous thickener, it is impossible to pass more solids
than that (at the stated concentration) through a unit area.
Q C W
The flux is defined as, G 0 0  t
A A
Where W t : Total Solid in the feed (kg/d)
= Q0C0  Qu Cu
Where, G = Solids flux, kg solids/m 2 -hr
Q0 = inflow rate m 3 /hr
C0 = inflow solids concentration, mg/1
A = surface area of thickener, m 2
Qu = Underflow rate m 3 /d
Cu = Underflow Solid concentration Kg/m 3
If G L is limiting flux, the necessary thickener area can be calculated as
QC W
AL  0 0  t
GL GL
The Graphical procedure can be used to develop an optimal process. If the calculated
thickener area is too big, a new under flow solids concentration C u can be selected
and a new required area calculated.
Minimum area for clarification A C (m 2 )
Ac = Q e /V s
Where Ac : area for clarification, m 2
Qe : overflow rate of clarified liquid, m 3 /hr
Vs : initial settling rate at the feed
Concentration, m/s
The larger of the two areas A L or A C determines the size needed to achieve the
specified performance.
Procedure:
1. Using the given sludge suspension, prepare various dilutions and observe the
setting rate of the solid-liquid interface.
Calculation Procedure:
Development of flux plot: the setting characteristics of a sludge is best described by
a ‘flux plot’ To obtain this plot the following procedure is adopted.
 1. Run a series of settling tests at various solids concentration and record the
sludge water interface with time.
2. Plot height of sludge water interface vs time for each concentration. The slope
of the initial straight line portion of the curve gives the velocity of settling for
each concentration.
3. Determine suspended solids concentration of the suspension and accordingly
calculate suspended solids in various dilutions.
4. Next plot this velocity obtained vs solids concentration.
5. Multiplying a velocity by its corresponding solids concentration yields solid
flux which is plotted against the concentration. This is the ‘flux of plot’ of
sludge thickening characteristics.

GL

Solid flux C i V i
kg/m 2 -h

Ci CCu
Solid Concentration mg/l
Analysis Required:
1. With the help of the above calculation procedure, calculate thickner area for a
1000 m 3 /d flow containing 5000mg/1 suspended solids for 1,2,3,4 and 5%
sludge solids in the underflow. Compare this with clarification area
requirement.
2. Thickener area of 3000, 5000, 8000 and 10,000 m/g1 influent suspended solid
concentrations for a desired underflow suspended solids concentration of
35,000 mg/1. Compare this with clarification area requirement.
Title of Experiment: Discrete Settling
Objective:
To Study the settling characteristics of a given suspension and correlate it to
sedimentation tank design criteria.
Theory:
Discrete settling refers to the sedimentation of particles in a suspension of low solid
concentration where particles settle as individual entities and there is no significant
interaction with other particles. A particles will settle when the force of gravity
exceeds the inertia and viscous forces. The terminal settling velocity of a particle is
defined by the relationship.
4 g (  s  l ) D p
Vc 
3Cd l
Where s : specific gravity of the particles
l : specific gravity of the liquid
VC terminal settling velocity of the particles
DP : diameter of particles
Cd : drag coefficient
g : acceleration due to gravity
For smaller Reynolds No. the viscous forces are predominant and

Cd = 24/Re (2)
1 Vc
Re = (3)
μ
 and  are the density and viscosity of liquid respectively. Equation (3) yields.
(  S  1 ) 2
VC = gD p
18
Relationships have been developed in literature for removal of discrete
particles in an ideal settling tank, based on the premise that the particles entering the
tank are uniformly distributed over the influent cross section and that a particle is
considered removed when it hits the bottom of tank. The settling velocity of a
particle which settle through a distance equal to effective depth of the tank in the
theoretical detention period can be considered as an overflow rate.
Q
VC =
A
Where, Q : rate of flow through the tank
A : tank surface area
All particles with settling velocities greater than V C will be completely removed and
particles with settling velocities less than V C will be removed in the ratio V/V C as
shown below
The removal of discrete particles is independent of tank depth and is a function only
of the flow rate. When the suspension to be removed has a wide range of particle
size, the total removal (efficiency of removal) is defined by:
 1.0

Fraction of Xc
particles with
less than stated
velocity

Xp

Vp Vc
Settling velocity
1 X0
Removal efficiency R = (1-X 0 ) + Voa dx (6)
Vo O
1
= (1  X 0 ) 
Vo
V oa x

Where, XO : Fraction particles having a settling

velocity equal to or less than V o
X : mass fraction of individual sample
Vo  Vo2
V oa : Average velocity 1
2
x : X n – X n-1
Vo : observed settling, velocity m/s
Procedure:
1. Perform sieve analysis of approx. 1Kg. of given sample of sand, weigh
individual fraction and keep them separately.
2. Fill a one-meter settling column with tap water. Record temperature.
3. Drop Small quantities of various fractions of sand and record time taken up to
settle through a distance of about 0.75m. Repeat at least three times for each
fraction.
Results and Discussion:
1. Draw settling velocity V s fraction of particles (having equal to or less than
stated settling velocity) curve and compare it with calculated (terminal)
settling velocity.
2. Using the information in (1) draw surface loading (m 3 /m 2 .d) Vs efficiency
curve.
3. Draw settling velocity Vs particle diameter column.
 Title of Experiment: Flow Through Fluidized Bed
Objectives:
a. To study the minimum fluidization velocity and pressure drop for a liquid solid
system and to find the velocity at which entrainment of particles begin.
b. To compare the results obtained experimentally with the corresponding
theoretical results.
Theory:
A fluid flowing at low velocities through a porous bed of solid particles as in a
packed tower, does not cause the particles to move. The fluid passes through the
small tortuous channels, losing pressure energy. If the velocity of a fluid flowing up
through the bed is gradually increased a condition will be met at which the drag
force will just equal to the weight of the solid beyond which further increase in
velocity will cause the particles to move.
Pressure Drop in fluidized Bed
At the onset of fluidization pressure drop will be given by the equation.
(P)
 g (1 m ) (  p   )
Lm
Where, (-P) : Pressure drop, N/m 2
Lm : bed height at incipient fluidization, m
m : minimum porosity for fluidization
m : density of particle, kg/m 3
 : density of fluid, kg/m 3
g : acceleration due to gravity, m/s 2
The porosity of the bed when true fluidization begins is called minimum porosity for
fluidization and is given by
m
m  1
LmA ρP
Where m : mass of solid, kg.
A : area of cross section of tube, m 2
The porosity at any height in the expanded bed is calculated by the following
equation:
Lm 1 
Where, 
L 1 m
Where, L = Height of expended bed, m
 = porosity in expended bed at height L
Minimum fluidization velocity
Minimum fluidization velocity is calculated from Ergun equation and the minimum
pressure drop equation in the following way:

1.75 D p2  2Vom 150 D pVom (1 m ) D 3p (  p   ) g

  0
 s  2 3m  s2  2m 2
The minimum fluidization velocity V om will be obtained when =m
 1.75 D p2  2 150 D p (1 m ) Vom pD pVm
2 3
Vom2  2 2
 K3  0
s   m s  m 
1
/3
 g (P   )  
Where criterion factor K  D p  
  
D V
Re  p om

where Re is the Reynolds number at minimum fluidization condition. For various
types and sizes of solid particles.
1
s 3m 
14
1 m
11
s2 3m
On substituting these values and solving, we get,
24.5 Re2 + 1650 Re-K3 =0
Re = (33.672 + 0.0408 K1/2)-33.67
If Re <20, we will have to neglect inertial forces, because at low Reynolds Number
viscous forces predominate, so
D p2 g (  s   )
Vom 
1650 
If Re > 1000, then viscous forces are negligible
1/ 2
 D g (s   ) 
Vom   p 
 24.5 
Where, DP = Dia of solid particle, m
 = viscosity of fluid, kg/m.s
The terminal settling velocity of fluidized bed is difficult to estimate with precision. For
sphere, however the limiting ratio of terminal velocity Ut to minimum fluidization velocity
Vom are calculated.
For large particles Ut/Vom = 91.7
For small particles Ut/Vom = 9.6
C. Calculation of superficial velocity, Vf
Superficial velocity can be calculated with the help of orifice meter as
Q0
Vf 
Area of column
Where Qo = flow rate = /4 (Dpi )2 V0
DPi = Dia of pipe, m
 = ratio of orifice dia to pipe dia
Cd 2(P0 )
Vo = 
1  4 P
Where, (-P0) = pressure drop through orifice meter, N/m2
 Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice
Procedure:
1. Start the pump and adjust the liquid flow rate to the bed to a lowest possible value.
2. Measure the height of bed and corresponding manometric reading across the bed and
orifice meter.
3. increase the flow rate slowly and repeat step 2 till entrainment occurs.
Results and discussion:
1. Draw a neat schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
2. Calculate the experimental value of pressure drop in fluidized bed and superficial
velocity (Vf) and plot (-p) vs Vf on log-log scale.
3. Calculate the pressure drop and velocity at minimum fluidization and compare it with
that obtained experimentally.
4. Calculate the porosity in fluidized bed and plot (-p) Vs  on log -log scale.
5. Calculate the ratio of Ut/Vom.
Title of the Experiment: Filtration Using Plate and Frame Filter Press
Objectives:
a. To Study constant pressure filtration with the help of plate and frame filter press and
to calculate the resistance offered by cake and medium.
b. To calculate the washing rate in filtration using plate and frame filter press.
c. To calculate the total filtration cycle.
Theory:
The filtration encounters three types of resistance in Series during filtration namely (I)
resistance offered by channels before cake and after filter media and (II) resistance offered
by filter media and (III) resistance of cake.
The filter cake behaves as a fixed bed and in almost all practical cases it has been observed
that the flow is laminar. Therefore, Carman-Kozeny equation can be applied. This equation
should be modified to express it in terms of measurable quantities and the resistance offered
by filter media and different flow channels should be expressed in equivalent volumes of
filtrate. By suitable arrangement of this equation, filtration rate can be given as:
dt   aCV 
   Rm 
dv A(Δp)  A 
dt
 KP V  B
dv
C μ
where, KP =
A 2 (ΔP)
R mμ
B =
A (ΔP)
where dv/dt = filtration rate (m3/sec)
α = specific cake resistance, m/kg
A = filtration area, m2
C = Solid concentration in feed slurry (kg. solid/m3)
 = viscosity of filtrate (water) kg/m sec.
Rm = filter medium resistance m-1
(-p) = pressure difference, N/m2
For plate and frame filter press, the wash liquid travels through a cake twice as
thick and area only half as large as in filtering so the predicted washing rate is ¼ of the final
filtration rate.
 dv   1 
   
 dt  f  K P Vf  B 
 dv 
where   = rate of washing m3/sec
 dt 
Vf = total volume of filtrate for entire period at the end of filtration, m3

Total filtration cycle is calculated by the time taken during the filtration and time taken
during washing and time taken to remove the cake, clean filter and reassemble the filter press.
Procedure:
1. Arrange properly various plate and frame and tighten the tighten the press.
2. Prepare the slurry of Calcium Carbonate of desired concentration in the slurry tank and
keep it well stirred.
3. Start the slurry pump and allow the slurry to enter the press by slowly opening the slurry
inlet valve of the press.
4. Adjust the desired pressure with the help of bypass valve and keep the pressure constant.
5. Collect the filtrate at fixed interval of time
6. When filtration is complete, fill the tank with water and note down the volume of water.
7. Start the wash water pipe and wash the cake. Collect the water and note down the time for
washing.
Results and discussion:
1. Draw neat sketch of press and mention its important dimensions.
dt
2. Plot vs V and fit straight line.
dv
3. With the help of slope and intercept, find specific cake resistance and filter medium
resistance respectively.
4. Find the time of filtration and washing rate, compare the result with the theoretical value.
Title of the Experiment: Verification of Rittinger’s Law
Objective:
To verify Rittinger’s law and calculate Rittinger’s constant for given feed.
Theory :
Rittingner has proposed a crushing law which states that the work required in crushing is
proportional to the new surface created. This law is equivalent to the statement that crushing
efficiency is constant and for a given machine and feed is independent of the size of feed and
product Mathematically.
  1 1 
 Kr   
m  D sb D sb 
Where P : Power required by the machine in KW
m : Feed rate kg/sec.
Dsb & Dsb: Volume surface mean dia for product and feed respectively.
6
Ds 
s Aw  p
Where s = sphericity of particle
p = density of particle (kg/m3)
Aw = specific surface of particle in m2/kg
Procedure:
1. Run the machine without load for fixed interval of time and note down the power
consumption.
2. Take a sample of known weight of material and perform screen analysis.
3. Feed the material in the machine continuously with in the same time interval.
4. Note down the power consumed by the machine when it is loaded.
5. Collect the product and perform the screen analysis.
6. Take the same sample size as in step (2) and repeat step 3 to 5 on the different machine.
Calculation:
1. Draw the neat and clean sketch of the machine used.
2. Calculate specific surface of feed and product.
3. Calculate volume surface mean diameter for feed and product.
4. Calculate Rittinger’s constant.
5. Repeat the calculation from (2) to (4) for another set of feed and product.
6. Calculate the power required for a fertilizer industry which is using a crushing machine to
obtain the same product size as obtained in the first set of observation, for the same
material and having a feed rate for machine as 3kg/sec. and having a volume surface
diameter for feed as 0.25mm.
Titleof the Experiment: Grinding Characteristics of Crushing Machine
Objectives:
a. To study the grinding machine and to calculate the crushing and mechanical
efficiency.
b. To calculate the number of particles per unit mass in the feed and product.
Theory:
When the particles are reduced in size, it is distorted and strained. The work
necessary to strain them is stored in the solid as mechanical energy of stress. As
additional force is applied to the stressed particle, they are distorted beyond their
ultimate strength and suddenly rupture into fragments. New surface is generated.
Since a unit area of solid has a definite amount of surface energy, the creation of
new surface requires work, which is supplied by the release of energy of stress when
the particles break.
The ratio of the surface energy created by crushing to the energy absorbed by the
solid is the crushing efficiency ().
(A  A wa )
 C  es wb (A)
Wn
(A wb  A wa )
= (B)
Wn * Rittinger' s number
1
where e s : Surface energy per unit area =
Rittinger' s number
Wn : Energy absorbed by the material of unit mass
A wb & A wa : Area per unit mass of the product and feed respectively.
The specific surface (area/unit mass) in case of differential analysis and number of
particles are given by:
6 nT Δφ n
A w1 = 
φs  p n 1 D pn
(C)

nT
1 Δφ n
N w1 =
a p

n 1 D -3 pn
(D)

and in case of cummulative analysis

6  2 d
A w1 = 
P  p 1 D p
1 2 dQ
N w1 =  (E)
a p 1 D 3p
where  p : density of particle kg/m3
s : sphericity of particle
 n : mass fraction retained on the screen
D pn : average diameter of the particle in m
a = volume shape factor
Equation (C) or (E) are used for determining specific surface for coarse particle
having size greater than 35 mesh (BSS) screen.

For fine particles having particle size smaller than 35 mesh. Gaudin’s method is used
and the surface is given by:
6B
A w2 = ( D pk1  D pk 2 ) (F)
s  s k
B
N w2 = ( D pk12  D pk 2 2 ) (G)
a pk 2
If K = 0, equation (G) in indeterminate, than in this case.
6B D
A w2 = in p1 (H)
φs  p D p2
Where B can be determined from the following equation
B (r k 1  1) D
B/ = ; where r = pn -1
K 1 D pn

log  n = (K+1) log D pn + log B /

And the total specific surface per unit mass A w will be
Aw = A w1 + A w2
Nw = N w1 + N w2
A wb = A w (Product) x mass of product
A wa = (feed) x mass of product
And the mechanical efficiency  m is given by
W
ηm 
Wn
Procedure:
1. Take known weight of sample and perform the screen analysis.
2. Run the machine without load and note down the power consumption for fixed
time.
3. Feed the material continuously exactly within same time as that when machine
was run empty.
4. Collect the product and perform the screen analysis.
Result and discussion:
Draw the neat and clean sketch of lab mill. Tabulate the data by differential as well
as commulative analysis.
1. Plot D p vs  curve for product.
2. Plot log n vs log D pn for particle having size smaller then 35 mesh (BSS).
3. Calculate the specific surface for feed and product.
4. Calculate crushing and mechanical efficiency.
Reference:
McCabe W.L. and Smith J.C., Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering, McGraw
Hill International Book company. 3 rd edition.
Title of the Experiment: Breakage and Selection Function
Objective:
To determine the breakage characteristics of given sample by using selection and
breakage function.
Theory:
The size distribution of products from various type of size reduction equipments can
be predicted by the use of two basic concepts that of a grinding rate function or
selection function and breakage function. The material in a mill at any time is made
up of particle of many different sizes and they all interact with one another during
size reduction process.
Consider a stack of n T standard screens and let n be the number of particular screen
in the stack. For any given value of n, let the upper screens coarser than screen n b e
designated by subscript U (U n ) the grinding rate function S u is the fraction of
material of a given size coarser than that on screen n which is broken in a given time
Xu is the mass fraction retained on one of the upper screens, its rate of chang e by
breakage to smaller size is
dxu
  Su X u
dt
Selection function is a parameter that represents the resistance of same size fractions
to being produced during breakage. It is expressed by the equation
M 1 (t) = M 1 (0) exp (-S 1 t 1 )
where M 1 (t) is the mass fraction of feed remaining after time t . The “Breakage
functions” are related quantities that give the size distribution resulting from
breakage in defined size fraction.
The changes in particulate distribution with time can be characterized by:
dyi (t)
 Fi
dt
where y i (t) is the cummulative mass fraction finer than x i at time, t.
F i is the cummulative zero order production rate constant for size x i
The breakage function can be calculated from the following relationship.
Fi
Bi , j 
Sj
where i : mesh size
j : fraction number
The selection function for other sizes may be calculated
a/2
 X i X j 1 
Sj = Si  
 X1X 2 
where, X 1 , X 2 are sizes that define the size fraction of feed material.
X j and X j+1 are opening that define the size fraction where selection function
is now to be calculated.
a : slope of log-log plot of F 1 and particulate sizes X i in microns.
Procedure:
1. Take known weight of feed sample and grind it for different times.
2. Perform screening and tabulate the data on the basis of differential analysis.
Results and discussion
1. Calculate selection function that pertains to fixed size fraction of feed material
by plotting log mass fraction of feed against grinding time.
2. Determine the production rate constants by plotting cummulative mass fraction
V s time.
3. Determine the breakage function that pertains to fixed size fraction as taken
above of feed material.
4. Determine the slope of particle size vs production rate constant.
5. Determine selection and breakage function for other sizes of same materials,.
6. How long will it take for the feed size fraction selected above to diminish by
70%.
Reference:
1. McCabe W.L. and Smith J.C., Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering, McGraw
Hill International edition.
2. Chopey, Hand Book of Chemical Engineering Calculation