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Gravitation :- Gravitation is a fundamental, non-contact force of attraction that acts between any two objects with
mass. It is the force that governs the motion of planets, stars, and galaxies, and it is what keeps us on the ground.
Nature of the Force:
 It is always attractive; there is no gravitational repulsion[4].
 It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces of nature[5].
 It has an infinite range.
Scientist Contribution

Galileo Galilei Discovered that objects fall at the same rate regardless of mass (in absence of air
resistance).

Isaac Newton Gave the Universal Law of Gravitation in 1687.

Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation
Sir Isaac Newton stated that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers. Mathematical Formula: F = Gm_1 m_2/r^2
Where : F is the gravitational force, m₁ and m₂ are the two masses, r is the distance between the centers of the two
masses.
G is the Universal Gravitational Constant. The value of G is .
Acceleration due to Gravity (g) :- The acceleration experienced by an object due to the gravitational force of a
celestial body. Formula: On Earth's surface, g = GM/R^2 (M is the mass of the Earth & R is the radius of the Earth).
Value: The standard value of g on Earth is approximately 9.8 m/s^2.
Variations in g:
Altitude: g decreases as you move to higher altitudes because the distance from the Earth's center increases.
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Depth: g also decreases as you go deeper into the Earth. At the Earth's center, the value of 'g' is zero.
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Shape of the Earth: Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is an oblate spheroid (flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator). Thus, the value of g is slightly higher at the poles and lower at the equator.
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Due to the planet's rotation, 'g' is minimum at the equator and maximum at the poles 5.
Free Fall :- The motion of an object under the influence of gravity alone.
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Characteristics:
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The acceleration of an object in free fall is always g.

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Air resistance is often neglected in ideal free-fall conditions.

All objects, regardless of their mass, fall with the same acceleration in a vacuum.
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Escape Velocity :- The minimum velocity an object must have to escape the gravitational pull of a celestial body
without further propulsion.
Value: For Earth, the escape velocity is approximately 11.2 km/s. This means an object must be launched with at least
this speed to leave Earth's gravitational field.
Mass and Weight
Mass (m): The measure of the amount of matter in an object. It is a scalar quantity and remains constant everywhere.
Its unit is the kilogram (kg).
Weight (W): The force of gravity acting on an object. It is a vector quantity and changes depending on the gravitational
acceleration (g). Its unit is the Newton (N).
An object's weight on the moon would be about one-sixth of its weight on Earth because the moon's gravity is about
one-sixth of Earth's gravity.
Feature Mass Weight

Definition The amount of matter in an The gravitational force exerted on an object by the
object. It is a measure of inertia. Earth (or another celestial body).

Formula - W=m×g

Variability Constant everywhere. Changes from place to place, as it depends on the

value of 'g'.
SI Unit Kilogram (kg) Newton (N)
 Measured by Beam balance Spring balance

Light
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that enables us to see. It exhibits dual nature, behaving as both a wave and
a particle.
Properties of Light
Rectilinear Propagation : Light travels in a straight line in a uniform medium.
Wave Nature : Light behaves like a transverse wave, meaning its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Particle Nature : Light energy comes in packets called photons, each with energy proportional to its frequency (higher
frequency = more energetic photons).
Speed of Light : Approximately 3×10^8 m/s in a vacuum, slower in denser media like air, water, and glass.
Reflection : The bouncing back of light from a surface. Types of Reflection
i) Regular Reflection : From smooth surfaces (e.g., mirror), Forms clear image
ii) Diffuse Reflection : From rough surfaces, Scattered rays → no clear image
Laws of Reflection :
 The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Refraction: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another (e.g., air to water).
 Due to change in speed of light as it enters a different medium
 Bends towards normal (denser medium)
 Bends away from normal (rarer medium)
 Twinkling of Star is due to atmospheric Refraction. st
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Dispersion of Light : The phenomenon of splitting white light into its seven constituent colors (VIBGYOR) when it
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passes through a transparent medium, such as a prism.

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Red deviates least, Violet most

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Cause : Each color of light has a different wavelength and bends at a slightly different angle.
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Wavelength and Frequency:

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Wavelength determines the type of electromagnetic radiation.

Frequency determines the energy and color of visible light.
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Intensity: Related to the amplitude of the wave; higher amplitude means brighter light.
Total Internal Reflection (TIR) :- The complete reflection of a light ray at the boundary of two media when it travels
from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
Conditions for TIR:
 Light must travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Applications : TIR is the principle behind optical fibers, endoscopes, sparkling of diamonds, shinning of air bubble in
water, mirage and looming.
Types of Light
Visible Light: The small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye (wavelengths approximately
400-700 nm).
Other Types: Include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, which are not visible but
share similar wave properties.
Lenses and Mirrors
Mirrors: Surfaces that reflect light.
Plane Mirror: Forms a virtual, erect, and same-sized image.
Spherical Mirrors (Concave & Convex): Used in telescopes, vehicles, and makeup mirrors.
Mirror Type Shape Image Formed Uses

Plane Flat Virtual, erect, same size Mirrors at home, periscopes

Concave Inward curved Real/inverted or virtual/erect Torches, shaving mirrors

 Convex Outward curved Virtual, erect, diminished Vehicle side mirrors

Uses of Concave Mirror:

(i) As a shaving mirror. (ii) As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle, search light. (iii) In ophthalmoscope to examine eye,
ear, nose by doctors. (iv) In solar cookers.
Uses of Convex Mirror:
(i) As a rear-view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum rear field of view and image formed is always erect. (ii) In
sodium reflector lamp

Lenses: Transparent materials that refract light.

Concave Lens: Diverges light rays and always forms a virtual, erect, and diminished image.
Convex Lens: Converges light rays and can form both real and virtual images. Used in magnifying glasses, cameras,
and eyeglasses.

Lens Type Shape Action Image Characteristics

Convex Converging Focuses light Can form real or virtual

Concave Diverging Spreads out light Always virtual, erect,

small
Defects of Vision
Defect Cause Correction
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 Myopia (near-sightedness) Eye too long / lens too strong Concave lens
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 Hypermetropia (far-sightedness) Eye too short / lens weak Convex lens

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 Presbyopia Old-age loss of elasticity Bifocal lenses

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 Astigmatism Irregular cornea curvature Cylindrical lens

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CATARACT: The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become milky and cloudy. Correction by Surgery.
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SI Unit of Power of lens is Dioptre (D)

Human Eye
Image is real and inverted on retina (brain interprets it upright)
Iris :- The colored part of the eye that helps regulate the amount of light that enters is the iris.
Pupil : the hole in the center of the iris that regulates how much light is let into the eye.
Cornea: the transparent, protective front part of the eye that refracts (or bends) light and helps you focus
Lens: a transparent, biconvex (curved outward on both sides) that helps light focus onto the retina
Retina: a nerve layer at the back of the eye that is light-sensitive, taking light and converting it into signals that are sent to the
brain via the optic nerve.
Macula: a small area in the center of the retina that helps us see fine detail
Optic nerve: located in the back of the eye, this nerve transmits electrical signals from the retina to the brain
Vitreous: a transparent gel that fills the interior of the eye, helping it keep its shape.
 Human Eye :- Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm, and farthest is infinity.
 Primary Colours- Blue, Red, Green.
Diffraction: Bending of light waves around obstacles and openings.
Polarization: Restriction of light waves to vibrate in a particular plane, demonstrating the transverse nature of light
waves.
Scattering : Deflection of light waves by particles, responsible for phenomena like the blue sky and red sunsets.
Rainbow Formation: Due to refraction, internal reflection, and dispersion of sunlight in water droplets.
Photoelectric Effect: Emission of electrons from metals when exposed to light of certain frequencies, proving the
particle nature of light.
 Heat
Heat vs. Temperature
Heat: The total kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. It is a form of energy that flows from a hot body to a cold
body.
Heat flows due to a temperature difference
The SI unit for heat is the joule (J).
Common units also include calorie (cal) and British thermal unit (BTU).
Measured by calorimeter. (1 calorie = 4.186 J)

Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles.
Its units are Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K).
Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three primary methods.

Method Description Example

Conduction Heat transfer through direct contact. Energy moves from Heating a metal rod at one
particle to particle in solids. end
Convection Heat transfer by the movement of fluids (liquids and gases). Boiling water, atmospheric
Warmer, less dense fluid rises; cooler, denser fluid sinks. currents

Radiation Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves (no matter Sunlight warming the Earth,
needed). Can occur through a vacuum. heat from a fire
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Latent Heat: The heat energy required for a substance to change its state (e.g. solid to liquid) without a change in
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temperature.
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Types:
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Latent Heat of Fusion: The heat required to change a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point.
Latent Heat of Vaporization: The heat required to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid to gas at its boiling
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point. Water has high latent heat of vaporization: 2260 kJ/kg

Change of State (Phase Change)
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 Melting : Solid → Liquid

 Boiling : Liquid → Gas
 Condensation : Gas → Liquid
 Freezing : Liquid → Solid
 Sublimation : Solid ↔ Gas
During phase change, temperature remains constant but heat is still absorbed or released.
Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°C (or 1K).
Thermal Expansion: Most substances expand when heated as particles move faster and farther apart.
Applications:
Gaps in railway tracks.
Bimetallic strips in thermostats.
Thermometer Scales
Scale Freezing Point Boiling Point Interval

Celsius (°C) 0°C 100°C 100

Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F 180

Kelvin (K) 273 K 373 K 100

 Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (has volume).
Characteristics of Matter
 Has mass and volume
 Made of particles (atoms/molecules)
 Particles are very small
 Particles have space between them
 Particles are in constant motion
 Particles attract each other (intermolecular force)
 Physical States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
 Definite shape and volume  No fixed shape, but fixed  No definite shape or volume
 Particles are tightly packed volume  Particles far apart and move
 Strong intermolecular force  Particles loosely packed freely
 Very small inter-particle space  Weaker intermolecular force  Very weak intermolecular force
 Incompressible than solids  Large inter-particle space
 Examples: Ice, iron, wood  Moderate inter-particle space  Highly compressible
 Slightly compressible  Examples: Air, oxygen, CO₂
 Examples: Water, oil, milk

Plasma :- Ionized gas with free electrons/ charged particles. No fixed shape or volume, conducts electricity. Found in
stars, lightning, fluorescent lights
Bose–Einstein Condensate :- State at near absolute zero temperature. Extremely low energy particles
Classification of Matter
Pure Substances: Have fixed composition and properties.
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Elements: Composed of only one type of atom and cannot be broken down chemically (e.g., gold, oxygen).
Compounds: Made of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio (e.g., H₂O, CO₂, NaCl )
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Mixtures: Physical combination of two or more substances, variable composition.

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 Homogeneous: Uniform throughout (e.g., saltwater).

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 Heterogeneous: Components visible and not uniformly mixed (e.g., sand in water).
Atoms and Molecules
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Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of that element. It consists of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
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Molecule: Two or more atoms chemically bonded together.

Interconversion of States of Matter
Matter can change from one state to another by:
Heating / Cooling
Changing Pressure
Common Changes:
Change Process Name

Solid → Liquid Melting

Liquid → Gas Evaporation/Boiling

Gas → Liquid Condensation

Liquid → Solid Freezing

Solid → Gas Sublimation

Gas → Solid Deposition

Separation of Components in Mixtures

Method Used For
  Filtration Insoluble solids from liquids

 Evaporation Solute from solution

 Distillation Liquids with different boiling points

 Centrifugation Particles in suspension

 Sublimation Sublimable solid from mixture

 Chromatography Color separation in ink

 Magnetic separation Magnetic from non-magnetic

Acid
An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) or protons when dissolved in water.
According to the Arrhenius definition, acids release H⁺ ions in aqueous solution.
According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors.
According to the Lewis definition, acids are electron pair acceptors.
Properties of Acids
Taste: Sour (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar).
Reaction with Metals: Acids react with certain metals like zinc, magnesium, and iron to produce hydrogen gas:

Litmus Test: Acids turn blue litmus paper red.

Conductivity: Acids conduct electricity due to ionization into ions in solution.
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Reaction with Bases: Acids neutralize bases to form salt and water (neutralization reaction):
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React with carbonates and bicarbonates producing carbon dioxide:

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Types of Acids
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Organic Acids:
Contain carbon atoms.
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Examples : Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) in vinegar, Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇) in citrus fruits.
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Inorganic (Mineral) Acids:

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Do not contain carbon.

Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid (HNO₃).
Strong Acids:
Completely dissociate in water to produce a large amount of H⁺ ions.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid (HNO₃).
Weak Acids:
Only partially dissociate in water.
Examples: Acetic acid (CH₃COOH), Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇).
Factors Affecting Acid Strength:
Degree of Ionization: More H⁺ ions mean stronger acid.
Bond Strength: Weaker bond to hydrogen means stronger acid.
Polarity: More polar bonds lead to easier H⁺ release, making the acid stronger.
Common Examples of Acids
Acid Chemical Formula Source Uses

Hydrochloric acid HCl Stomach (gastric juice) Digestion, cleaning agents

Sulfuric acid H₂SO₄ Industrial processes Fertilizers, car batteries

Nitric acid HNO₃ Laboratory, Industrial Explosives, fertilizers

Acetic acid CH₃COOH Vinegar Food preservation, cleaning

Citric acid C₆H₈O₇ Citrus fruits (lemons, Food additives, cleaning agents
 oranges)
pH Scale
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.
Scale: 0 to 14
 pH < 7: Acidic
 pH = 7: Neutral (pure water)
 pH > 7: Basic (alkaline)
Bases
Bases are substances that accept a proton (H^+ ion) or donate an electron pair. They typically taste bitter, feel soapy,
and turn red litmus paper blue.
Classification:
 Strong Bases: Ionize completely in water (e.g., Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)).
 Weak Bases: Ionize partially in water (e.g., Ammonium Hydroxide (NH_4OH)).
 Common Bases: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), Calcium hydroxide (lime water).
Alkali is a base that is soluble in water.
Salts
A salt is an ionic compound composed of positively charged ions (cations) derived from a base and negatively charged
ions (anions) derived from an acid.
Salts are typically formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid with a base :
Example:
Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride (common salt) and water:

Physical and Chemical Properties of Salts

 Salts generally form crystalline solids with distinct ionic structures.
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They are usually soluble in water Soluble in water (not all, e.g., BaSO₄ is insoluble).
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 Salts typically have high melting and boiling points due to strong ionic bonds between ions.
 Most salts are colorless or white, but some salts with metal ions (like copper, nickel, or iron salts) show
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characteristic colors.
 Salts are insulators in solid form, but conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water because ions
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become mobile.
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 Some salts may be acidic, basic, or neutral depending on the nature of their acid and base components.
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Types of Salts
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Neutral Salts: Formed by the complete neutralization of an acid and a base. They are typically neither acidic
nor basic.
Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate (KNO₃).
 Acidic Salts: Formed by partial neutralization of polyprotic acids; they contain replaceable hydrogen ions and
can show acidic behavior.
Example: Sodium bisulphate (NaHSO₄), sodium carbonate (NaHCO₃).
 Basic Salts: Formed by partial neutralization of a strong base and a weak acid; they can hydrolyze in water to
give basic solutions.
Example: Sodium acetate (CH₃COONa), zinc chloride hydroxide (Zn(OH)Cl).
 Double Salts: Formed by combination of two different salts .Contain more than one type of cation or anion and
crystallize in a single lattice. They lose their identity when dissolved in water.
Example: Potassium alum (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O), Mohr's salt ((NH₄)₂Fe(SO₄)₂·6H₂O).
 Mixed Salts: Formed by neutralization of more than one acid or base. Contain two different salts crystallized
together, retaining the properties of each salt when dissolved.
Example: Bleaching powder (Ca(ClO)₂).
Examples of Common Salts
Salt Name Chemical Formula Formed From Use/Importance

Sodium chloride NaCl HCl + NaOH Common salt, food seasoning

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO₃ H₂CO₃ + NaOH Baking soda, antacid

Sodium carbonate Na₂CO₃ H₂CO₃ + NaOH Washing soda, softens hard

water
 Calcium carbonate CaCO₃ H₂CO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ Chalk, limestone

Ammonium chloride NH₄Cl NH₃ + HCl Used in dry cells

Potassium nitrate KNO₃ HNO₃ + KOH Fertilizer, fireworks

Zinc sulfate ZnSO₄ H₂SO₄ + ZnO Medicine and antiseptic use

Calcium chloride (CaCl₂) – used for de-icing
Copper sulfate (CuSO₄) – fungicide
Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) – oxidizing agent
Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) – used in batteries and fertilizers
Importance of Some Common Salts
 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – Common Salt - Used for seasoning, food preservation, and in saline water.
 Baking Soda (NaHCO₃) – Sodium Bicarbonate - Used in baking (leavening agent).Mild antacid for indigestion.
Fire extinguisher ingredient.
 Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) – Sodium Carbonate - Used in laundry and cleaning. Water softener in
industrial processes.
 Bleaching Powder (CaOCl₂) Disinfectant., Used to purify drinking water.
 Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄·½H₂O)
Used in making casts (medical use), sculptures, and construction.

Elements
An element is a pure substance that consists of only one type of atom.
It cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
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Elements are the basic building blocks of matter and combine to form compounds.
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Characteristics of Elements
Pure Substance : Homogeneous composition throughout.
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Cannot be Simplified: Cannot be broken into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

Atomic Identity: All atoms are identical in terms of number of protons.
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Represented by Symbols: Each element has a unique symbol (e.g., O for Oxygen, Na for Sodium).
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Fixed Physical and Chemical Properties: Like melting point, boiling point, reactivity, etc.
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Classification of Elements
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Metals: Usually shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, ductile, and solid at room temperature
(except mercury).
Non-metals: Dull, poor conductors, brittle when solid, exist as gases, liquids, or solids.
Metalloids: Elements with properties intermediate between metals and non-metals).
Show properties of both metals and non-metals (e.g., silicon, arsenic).
Semi-conductors.
Found along the zigzag line of the periodic table.
Examples: B, Si, As, Sb
Periodic Table of Elements
All known elements are organized in the Modern Periodic Table (by increasing atomic number).
Total known elements: 118
94 naturally occurring
24 synthetic
Distribution:
Groups (vertical columns): 18
Periods (horizontal rows): 7
Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table according to their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring
chemical properties.
Natural vs. Synthetic Elements
Type Description Examples

Natural Occur naturally in Earth or universe O, H, Fe, C, N, Au

 Synthetic Man-made in laboratories (nuclear reactions) Plutonium (Pu), Californium (Cf)

Element Function

Calcium (Ca) Bones and teeth

Iron (Fe) Hemoglobin for oxygen transport

Phosphorus (P) DNA, ATP (energy molecule)

Noble Gases (Inert Elements)
Group 18 elements
Completely filled outermost shells → chemically unreactive
Used in lighting, welding, and cooling.
Element Symbol Use

Helium He Balloons, cooling agents

Neon Ne Neon signs

Argon Ar Light bulbs, welding

Important points
 Most abundant element in Earth’s crust: Oxygen
 Most abundant element in human body: Oxygen
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 Lightest element: Hydrogen
 Heaviest natural element: Uranium (U)
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 Liquid non-metal at room temp: Bromine (Br)

 Only liquid metal: Mercury (Hg)
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 Metal that is liquid near room temp: Gallium (melts in hand)

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Cell :- The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms.
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All living things are made up of cells. First observed by Robert Hooke in 1665 in cork tissue.The study of cells is called
Cytology.
Cell Theory :- Formulated by Schleiden (botanist) and Schwann (zoologist) in 1839.
Main Postulates:
 All living organisms are made of cells.
 The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells (added by Rudolf Virchow in 1855).
Types of Organisms Based on Cells
Type Description Example

Unicellular Made of a single cell Amoeba, Paramecium, Bacteria

Multicellular Made of many cells Humans, Plants, Animals

Types of Cells
Type Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus No true nucleus (nucleoid present) True nucleus with nuclear

membrane

Membrane-bound Organelles Absent Present

 Size Smaller (1-10 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)

Example Bacteria, Cyanobacteria Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists

Parts of a Cell
 Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane :- Thin, flexible outer covering., Semi-permeable: Allows selective entry/exit
of substances.
 Cell Wall :- Found only in plant cells. Made of cellulose. Provides rigidity and protection.
 Nucleus :- Control center of the cell. Surrounded by nuclear membrane. Contains chromosomes (DNA
material).Involved in inheritance, cell division, and metabolism.
 Cytoplasm :- Jelly-like fluid inside the cell. Suspends cell organelles.
Cell Organelles (Eukaryotic)
Organelle Function

Mitochondria Powerhouse of cell, produces energy (ATP)

Ribosomes Protein synthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Transport of materials

Rough ER: With ribosomes (protein synthesis)
Smooth ER: Without ribosomes (lipid synthesis)

Golgi Apparatus Packaging and transport of proteins/lipids

Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes; “suicide bags”

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Vacuole Storage of food, water, wastes (large in plant cells)
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Chloroplasts Site of photosynthesis in plant cells

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Contain chlorophyll
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Centrosome/Centrioles Help in cell division (in animal cells)

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Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells

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Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell

 Cell Wall Present Absent

 Vacuole Large central vacuole Small or absent

 Chloroplast Present (for photosynthesis) Absent

 Shape Rectangular or fixed shape Irregular or round

 Centrosome Generally absent Present (with centrioles)

Specialised Cells
Cells in multicellular organisms are specialised to perform specific functions.
 Muscle Cells → Movement
 Nerve Cells → Transmission of signals
 RBCs → Carry oxygen
 Xylem → Transport of water in plants
 Phloem → Transport of food in plants.
 Stem cells (undifferentiated, can become other cell types)
  White blood cells (immune defense)
 Bone cells (support and structure)
 Fat cells (energy storage

Mendel's Contribution and Experiment on Pea Plants

Introduction to Gregor Mendel :- Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884) was an Austrian monk and
botanist. Known as the "Father of Genetics". Conducted groundbreaking experiments on garden
pea plant (Pisum sativum). His work laid the foundation for the science of heredity (genetics).
Published his findings in 1866 in the paper: "Experiments on Plant Hybridization".

Why Pea Plants? Mendel chose the garden pea plant (Pisum sativum) for his experiments for several reasons:
Easy to grow and maintain.
Short life cycle, allowing him to observe multiple generations in a short period.
Naturally self-pollinating, which made it easy to get pure-breeding plants.
Easy to cross-pollinate manually, giving him full control over the experiments.
Had several well-defined, contrasting traits that were easy to observe (e.g., tall/dwarf, yellow/green seeds).
Mendel's Experiments: The Seven Traits
Mendel studied the inheritance of seven different pairs of contrasting traits in pea plants. These traits were:
Trait Dominant Trait Recessive Trait
 Stem Height Tall Dwarf
 Seed Shape Round Wrinkled
 Seed Color Yellow Green
 Pod Shape Inflated Constricted
 Pod Color Green st Yellow
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 Flower Color Violet (Purple) White
y

 Flower Position Axial (along the stem) Terminal (at the top)
ud
St

Key Terms
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Allele: Different forms of a gene (e.g., T for tall, t for dwarf).

SS

Genotype: Genetic makeup (e.g., TT, Tt, tt).

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Phenotype: Physical appearance (e.g., tall or dwarf).

Homozygous: Same alleles (TT or tt).
Heterozygous: Different alleles (Tt).

Monohybrid Cross :- Cross between two plants differing in one trait (e.g., tall vs. dwarf).
Dihybrid Cross :- Cross between two plants differing in two traits (e.g., seed shape and seed color).
Laws of inheritance:
1. Law of Dominance
In a cross between pure-bred parents, only the dominant trait appears in the F1 generation.
Example: Pure Tall (TT) × Pure Dwarf (tt) → All F1 offspring are Tall (Tt).
2. Law of Segregation
Alleles separate during gamete formation; offspring inherit one allele from each parent.
Example: F1 Tall plants (Tt) produce T and t gametes & F2 generation shows 3:1 ratio (Tall : Dwarf).
3:1 phenotypic ratio (3 tall plants for every 1 dwarf plant) and a
1:2:1 genotypic ratio (1 pure tall : 2 hybrid tall : 1 pure dwarf).
3. Law of Independent Assortment
A dihybrid cross (a cross between two parents that differ in two distinct traits) used.
Genes for different traits are inherited independently (applies to genes on different chromosomes).
Example: Cross between Round-Yellow (RRYY) and Wrinkled-Green (rryy) seeds produces
F1 Round-Yellow (RrYy). F2 generation shows 9:3:3:1 ratio.
Parental Generation: Mendel crossed a pure-breeding pea plant with round, yellow seeds with a pure-
breeding plant with wrinkled, green seeds.
First Filial Generation (F_1): All the offspring in the F_1 generation had round, yellow seeds. This again
showed that round and yellow were dominant traits.
Second Filial Generation (F_2): When the F_1 plants were self-pollinated, the F_2 generation showed a
mix of all four possible combinations of traits:
Round, Yellow seeds
Round, Green seeds
Wrinkled, Yellow seeds
Wrinkled, Green seeds
Mendel's major contributions include:
Particulate Inheritance: He proposed that inheritance is based on discrete "factors" (what we now call
genes and alleles), rather than the "blending" of parental traits.
Dominant and Recessive Alleles: He introduced the concepts of dominant and recessive traits to explain
the patterns of inheritance.
Mathematical Ratios: He used a quantitative, statistical approach to genetics, which was revolutionary for
his time. His work demonstrated that inheritance followed predictable mathematical patterns.
Foundation of Modern Genetics: His laws remain the cornerstone of classical genetics and are used to
predict the inheritance of traits in a wide range of organisms.

Types of Reproduction in plants and animals

Reproduction: Biological process to produce offspring → ensures continuity of species.
Two major modes:
 Asexual (one parent, no gamete fusion, clones)
 Sexual (two gametes fuse → zygote → variation)
1. Asexual Reproduction
st
Fa
Key Characteristics:
 Single parent involved.
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 No gamete formation or fusion; mitosis, no meiosis, no fertilization

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 Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).

St

 Rapid multiplication.
Types of Asexual Reproduction:
B
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Fission: The parent organism divides into two or more new individuals.
Binary Fission: A single organism divides into two identical daughter organisms. Examples: Amoeba,
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Paramecium.
Multiple Fission: The parent body divides into many daughter cells simultaneously. Example: Plasmodium.
Budding: A small outgrowth or "bud" forms on the parent body, which then detaches and develops into a
new individual.Examples: Hydra, Yeast.
Fragmentation: The parent's body breaks into multiple fragments, and each fragment develops into a new,
complete organism. Examples: Spirogyra, Planaria.
Spore Formation: Spores are tiny, non-motile reproductive units that can develop into new individuals under
favorable conditions. Examples: Fungi (Rhizopus), Ferns.
Vegetative Propagation (in plants): New plants are grown from vegetative parts of the parent plant,
such as roots, stems, or leaves.
Natural Methods:
Stem: Rhizome (Ginger), Tuber (Potato; eyes = buds), Bulb (Onion), Runner (Doob grass/Cynodon), Stolon
(Strawberry), Sucker (Mint), Offset (Water hyacinth), Corm (Colocasia/Arvi).
Leaf: Bryophyllum (leaf notches).
Root: Sweet potato (adventitious buds).
Artificial Methods:
Layering: A stem attached to the parent plant is bent and covered with soil to grow roots. Example: Jasmine.
Cutting: A part of a stem, root, or leaf is cut and planted to grow a new plant. Example: Rose, Sugarcane.
Grafting: The stem of two different plants (scion and stock) are joined to grow as a single plant. Example:
Mango, Apple.
Micropropagation/tissue culture (Orchid, Banana).
Parthenogenesis (no fertilization; haploid offspring):
Honey bee → Males (drones) haploid from unfertilized eggs (arrhenotoky); females (workers/queen) diploid
from fertilized eggs.
Aphids, some lizards (whiptail), rotifers.
2. Sexual Reproduction
Key Characteristics:
 Two parents (male and female) are involved.
 Formation and fusion of male and female gametes (sperm and egg) [syngamy/amphimixis].
 Offspring show genetic variation.
 Slower process compared to asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants:
In flowering plants, the male gametes are found in pollen grains, and the female gametes are in the ovule.
Monoecious (male & female flowers on same plant eg.Maize
Dioecious (on different plants eg. Papaya, Date palm).
Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Self-Pollination: Pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant.
Autogamy (same flower),
Geitonogamy (different flower, same plant).
Cross-Pollination: Pollen is transferred from one plant to the stigma of a flower on a different plant.
Xenogamy (different plants)
Agents of pollination:
Abiotic: Wind (Anemophily—grass, maize), Water (Hydrophily—Vallisneria).
Biotic: Insects (Entomophily—sunflower), Birds (Ornithophily—bignonia), Bats (Chiropterophily).
Fertilization: After pollination, a pollen tube grows down to the ovule, where the male gamete fuses with the
female gamete (egg). This fusion forms a zygote.
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Double Fertilization (unique to angiosperms):
One male gamete + egg → zygote (2n)
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Other male gamete + two polar nuclei → endosperm (3n)

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Seed and Fruit Formation: The zygote develops into an embryo, the ovule becomes the seed, and the ovary
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develops into the fruit.

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Apomixis: Seed formed without fertilization (e.g., Citrus, Mango lines).

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Parthenocarpy: Fruit without seeds (banana—often induced).

Sexual Reproduction in Animals:

Internal Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes takes place inside the female body. Examples:
Humans, Birds, Reptiles.
External Fertilization: Fusion of gametes takes place outside the female body, usually in water. Examples:
Fish, Frogs.
Reproductive Cycles in Animals:
Oviparous Animals: These animals lay eggs. The development of the embryo occurs outside the female's
body. Examples: Birds, Reptiles, Fish.
Viviparous Animals: These animals give birth to live young. The development of the embryo occurs inside the
female's body. Examples: Mammals (except platypus and echidna).
Ovoviviparous (egg retained & hatches inside): Some sharks, Rays.
Hermaphrodites (both sexes in same individual): Earthworm, Leech, Tapeworm, Many snails (usually cross-
fertilize to avoid selfing).

Classification of Plants and Animals

Classification: The scientific process of arranging organisms into groups based on similarities and
differences.

Taxonomy: Science of classification

 Aristotle’s Classification

● First scientific attempt (384–322 BCE).

● Divided animals into:
○ With red blood (vertebrates)
○ Without red blood (invertebrates)
● Plants classified as herbs, shrubs, trees (based on height & stem).

Carolus Linnaeus

● Father of Taxonomy.
● Binomial nomenclature (two-word name: Genus & species).
● Hierarchical ranks:
Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species

Modern Five-Kingdom Classification (R.H. Whittaker, 1969)

● Monera – Bacteria, cyanobacteria (prokaryotes)

● Protista – Unicellular eukaryotes (Amoeba, Paramecium)
● Fungi – yeast, mushrooms (saprophytic)
● Plantae – Multicellular, autotrophic
● Animalia – Multicellular, heterotrophic
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Classification of Plants
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A. Based on Size & Structure

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● Herbs – Small, soft stem (e.g., Tulsi)

B
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● Shrubs – Medium height, woody stem (e.g., Rose)

● Trees – Tall, woody trunk (e.g., Mango)
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B. Based on Life Cycle

● Annuals – Complete life cycle in 1 season (e.g., Wheat)

● Biennials – Complete in 2 years (e.g., Carrot)
● Perennials – Live for many years (e.g., Neem)

C. Based on Seed/Flowering

● Cryptogams – seedless plants

○ Thallophyta (Algae)
○ Bryophyta (Mosses and Liverwors)
○ Pteridophyta (Ferns)
● Phanerogams – seed-producing plants
○ Gymnosperms: Seeds naked (e.g., Pine)
○ Angiosperms: Seeds in fruit (e.g., Mango)

Division Key Features Key Facts Examples

Thallophyta/Algae Simple body (thallus), Found in water; Algae (Spirogyra, Chara)

 noroots/stems/leaves, no reproduce by
vascular tissues spores;

Bryophyta Non-vascular, body with leaf-like Called amphibians Moss (Funaria), Liverwort
& stem-like structures, rhizoids of the plant (Riccia)
instead of roots kingdom; need
water for
reproduction

Pteridophyta Vascular, seedless, have roots, First vascular land Fern (Dryopteris), Horsetail
stems, leaves plants; reproduce (Equisetum)
via spores

Gymnosperms Vascular, naked seeds, needle- No flowers; cones Pine, Cycas

like leaves in many species present; wind
pollination common

Angiosperms Vascular, seeds enclosed in fruit, Most advanced Mango, Wheat

flowers present group; divided into
Monocots & Dicots
Angiosperms

○ Monocots: Have a single cotyledon. They have fibrous roots and leaves with parallel venation. Examples:
Maize, Wheat, Rice, and Grass .
○ Dicots: Have two cotyledons. They have a taproot system and leaves with reticulate (net-like) venation.

st
Examples: Mustard, Gram, Pea, and Mango
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KINGDOM ANIMALIA
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Non-Chordates (Invertebrates)
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B

These animals lack a backbone or notochord.

SS

 Phylum Porifera:
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o Simple multicellular animals with a cellular level of organization. They have pores all over their body.
o Example: Sponges. Sycon, Euplectella
 Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria):
o Have a tissue level of organization and a sac-like body with a single opening.
o Examples: Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals.
 Phylum Platyhelminthes:
o These are flatworms with an organ level of organization. Many are parasitic.
o Examples: Tapeworm, Liver fluke.
 Phylum Aschelminthes (Nematoda):
o Known as roundworms; they have a complete digestive system. Examples: Ascaris (roundworm),
Wuchereria (filarial worm).
 Phylum Annelida:
o Segmented worms with a true body cavity (coelom).
o Examples: Earthworm, Leech.
 Phylum Arthropoda:
o The largest phylum, characterized by a jointed exoskeleton and jointed appendages.
o Examples: Insects, Spiders, Crabs, Prawns.
 Phylum Mollusca:
o Soft-bodied animals, often with a hard external shell.
o Examples: Snails, Mussels, Octopus.
 Phylum Echinodermata:

Phylum Key Features Key Facts Examples

Porifera Pores, canal system, no Simplest animals; body Sponges (Sycon)

tissues, sessile supported by spicules

Cnidaria/Coelenterata Radial symmetry, Two forms – polyp & Hydra, Jellyfish

tentacles with stinging medusa; tissue level
cells (cnidoblasts)

Platyhelminthes Flat, bilaterally Many are parasites; first Tapeworm, Liver fluke
symmetrical, unsegmented triploblastic

Nematoda Roundworms, Cause diseases like Ascaris, Wuchereria

pseudocoelom, filariasis
unsegmented

Annelida Segmented, true coelom, First with closed Earthworm, Leech

closed blood system circulatory system

Arthropoda Segmented, exoskeleton, Largest phylum; open Insects, Prawns

jointed legs blood system

Mollusca Soft body, shell in most, Second largest phylum Snail, Octopus
muscular foot
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Echinodermata Spiny skin, radial Only marine, water Starfish, Sea urchin
symmetry (adult), tube feet vascular system
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St

Chordata Notochord, dorsal nerve Includes all vertebrates Fishes, Amphibians,

cord, post-anal tail Reptiles, Birds,
B

Mammals
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o Spiny-skinned marine animals with a water vascular system for locomotion.

JK

o Examples: Starfish, Sea urchins.

 Phylum Chordata (Vertebrates)
o These animals possess a notochord at some stage of their life, which is replaced by a vertebral column or
backbone in most adults .
o RBC’s present

● Class Pisces (Fish)

○ Exclusively aquatic animals with gills for respiration.
○ They have a streamlined body and fins for swimming.
○ They are cold-blooded animals .
○ Examples: Rohu, Shark, Tuna.
● Class Amphibia
○ Can live both on land and in water.
○ They have moist, smooth skin and breathe through gills (in larval stage) and lungs (in adult stage).
○ They are cold-blooded .
○ Examples: Frogs, Toads, Salamanders.
● Class Reptilia
○ Mainly terrestrial animals with dry, scaly skin.
○ They breathe through lungs.
○ They are cold-blooded .
○ Examples: Snakes, Lizards, Turtles, Crocodiles.
● Class Aves (Birds)
○ Characterized by the presence of feathers and forelimbs modified into wings for flight.
○ They have a light, hollow bone structure.
○ They are warm-blooded animals .
○ Examples: Pigeons, Sparrows, Ostriches.
● Class Mammalia
○ The most advanced group of animals.
○ Characterized by the presence of mammary glands, which produce milk to nourish their young .
○ They have hair or fur on their bodies.
○ They are warm-blooded .
○ Examples: Humans, Whales, Cows, Bat

Occurrence, Extraction & Refining of Metals

Occurrence of Metals
Metals are found in nature in two forms:
Native state: Unreactive metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag), and platinum (Pt) are found in a free state.
Combined state: Reactive metals are found as their compounds (oxides, sulfides, carbonates, etc.) Eg. Na, K, Ca,
Al, Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu
Minerals and Ores
Mineral: A naturally occurring substance from which metal may or may not be extracted.
Ore: A mineral from which metal can be extracted profitably.
All ores are minerals, but not all minerals are ores.
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Examples:
y

Metal Ore
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 Aluminium Bauxite
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B

 Iron Hematite
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 Copper Copper pyrites

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 Zinc Zinc blende

 Lead Galena

 Mercury Cinnabar

Steps in Extraction of Metals

The process of obtaining pure metal from its ore involves 3 main steps:
A. Concentration (Enrichment) of Ore: Removal of gangue (impurities like sand, clay, etc.).
B. Extraction of Crude Metal: Using chemical or physical methods depending on reactivity.
C. Purification/Refining of Metal: To obtain pure, usable metal from crude form.
Enrichment / Concentration of Ores
The process of removing unwanted impurities (gangue) from the ore is known as the enrichment or concentration of
the ore.
i. Gravity Separation / Hydraulic Washing
Based on difference in densities.
Ore particles are heavier than gangue.
Used for: oxide ores of iron (e.g., hematite).
ii. Froth Flotation
Used for sulfide ores (e.g., ZnS, PbS).
Ore is mixed with water, pine oil, and air.
Sulfide ore forms froth and floats, gangue settles.
iii. Magnetic Separation
Used when ore and impurities have different magnetic properties.
E.g., Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) from silica.
iv. Chemical Methods (Leaching)
Used when ore is soluble in a solvent.
Leaching: A chemical process where the powdered ore is treated with a suitable solvent that dissolves the ore but
not the impurities. Used for extracting metals like aluminum and gold.
E.g., Bauxite (Al ore) is leached with NaOH:
Al₂O₃ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + H₂O
Extraction of Metals Based on Reactivity
The Reactivity Series is a list of metals arranged in descending order of chemical reactivity.
 Potassium (K)
 Sodium (Na)
 Calcium (Ca)
 Magnesium (Mg)
 Aluminium (Al)
 Zinc (Zn)
 Iron (Fe)
 Lead (Pb)
 [Hydrogen (non-metal reference)]
 Copper (Cu)
 Mercury (Hg)
 Silver (Ag)
 Gold (Au)
 Platinum (Pt)
The higher the reactivity, the more difficult it is to extract the metal.
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Metals are grouped into three categories for extraction based on their position in the activity series:
Fa
Reactivity Level Extraction Method
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High (Na, K, Ca, Al) Electrolytic reduction of molten ores

St

Moderate (Fe, Zn, Pb) Reduction using carbon or CO

B
SS

Low (Hg, Cu, Ag, Au) Roasting and heating alone

JK

A. Highly Reactive Metals(K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al)

Extraction Method: Electrolytic Reduction of molten chlorides or oxides
These metals cannot be reduced by carbon (too reactive).
Extraction done by electrolysis of molten compounds.
Examples:
Sodium (Na) from molten NaCl
NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻
At cathode: Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
At anode: 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
Aluminium (Al) from Bauxite (Al₂O₃) using electrolysis (Hall-Héroult process).
B. Moderately Reactive Metals (Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu)
Extraction Method: Reduction of oxides using carbon, CO or Aluminium
These metals are usually found as oxides, sulfides, or carbonates, which are first converted to oxides (via roasting
or calcination), then reduced.
i. Calcination
Heating in absence of air to remove volatile impurities.
Used for: carbonate ores
ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂ ↑
ii. Roasting
Heating in excess of air, often to convert sulfides to oxides.
E.g., 2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂
iii. Reduction of Oxides
Metal oxides are reduced to metal by carbon (coke), CO or Al.
Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂
Aluminium is used in "thermite process" to extract metals like chromium and manganese: Fe₂O₃ + 2Al → 2Fe + Al₂O₃
+ heat
(Used in welding railway tracks)
C. Low Reactive Metals (Hg, Ag, Au, Pt)
Extraction Method: Heating alone (roasting) or physical methods
May occur in native (free) state
Examples:
Mercury (Hg) from Cinnabar (HgS):
2HgS + 3O₂ → 2Hg + 2SO₂ ↑
Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au):
Extracted by leaching (e.g., cyanide process for gold).
Gold and silver occur naturally, extracted by leaching with NaCN.

Refining of Metals
Refining is the process of removing impurities from crude (impure) metal to obtain pure, usable metal.
Types of Refining Methods
A. Electrolytic Refining (Most common)
Used for: Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Ni, Pb, etc.
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Principle: Electrolysis — pure metal is deposited at cathode, impurities removed.
Setup:
y

Anode: Impure metal rod

ud

Cathode: Pure metal plate

St

Electrolyte: Salt solution of the same metal (e.g., CuSO₄ for Cu)
Reaction:
B
SS

Anode: Cu → Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻

JK

Cathode: Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu

Result:
Pure copper deposits at cathode
Impurities collect as anode mud (may contain valuable metals like Ag, Au)
B. Distillation
Used for low boiling point metals: Zinc, Mercury
Impure metal is heated → vaporizes → vapors condensed → pure metal obtained.
C. Liquation
Used for metals with low melting points: Tin, Lead
Impure metal is heated just above its melting point.
Pure metal melts and flows away, leaving behind impurities.
D. Zone Refining
Used for semiconductors: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
Process:
A circular heater is moved along a rod of impure metal.
Impurities concentrate at one end and are removed.
Based on: Difference in solubility of impurities in molten vs solid state.
E. Vapour Phase Refining
Used for: Titanium, Nickel
Example: Mond’s Process (Ni):
Impure Ni + CO → Ni(CO)₄ (volatile)
On heating: Ni(CO)₄ → Ni + 4CO
Volatile compound formed, then decomposed to get pure metal.
Method Used For Principle/Key Feature

Electrolytic Refining Cu, Ag, Zn, Ni, Pb Electrolysis – anode to cathode

transfer

Distillation Zn, Hg Vaporization and condensation

Liquation Sn, Pb Melting point difference

Zone Refining Si, Ge (semiconductors) Movement of molten zone

Vapour Phase Refining Ti (Kroll process), Ni (Mond) Formation and decomposition of

volatile compound

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y
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St
B
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