SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
TERM: FIRST TERM
NAME OF TEACHER: MRS. JOY O. AKHABUE
CLASS: SENIOR SECONDARY TWO
SCHEME OF WORK SS II FIRST TERM 25-09-2023
WEEKS TOPICS/CONTENTS
1. Action of Waves
a. Term associated with waves.
b. Erosion features of waves (Cape, Bay, Cliff etc.).
c. Coastal deposition (Beaches, Split, Bay etc.).
2. Climate II
a. Climate types (Hot, Temperate, Cold desert etc.)
b. Characteristics (Temperature, Rainfall etc.)
c. Geographical distribution.
3. Climate Classification
a. Greek classification
b. Koppen Classification
c. Advantage and Disadvantages of Koppen Classification
4. Environmental Resources Cont.
a. Meaning of environmental resources and types
b. Water resources
c. Vegetation resources
5. Environmental Resources Cont.
a. Mineral resources
b. Land resources
c. Human resources
6. Renewable and Non-renewable resources
a. Meaning and types of renewable and non-renewable resources
b. Advantages of renewable and non-renewable resources
c. Disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable resources
7. Environmental Problems (Hazards)
a. Meaning and types
b. Desert encroachment
c. Soil erosion
8. Environmental Problems (Hazards) Cont.
a. Coastal erosion
b. Flooding
c. Deforestation.
9. Environmental Problems (Hazards) Cont.
a. Pollution
b. Water pollution
c. Air and noise pollution
10. Environmental Conservation
a. Meaning and types/methods
b. Method of environmental conservation
c. Environmental education
11. Revision
12. Examination.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
Classification of climate is a conscious attempt at grouping different climates with similar
characteristics together. This is because, climate varies from place to place.
The common systems of classification of climate include the Greeks and Koppen’s classification.
Greek System of Classification of Climate
This is one of the earliest, ordinary, simple and rough climatic classifications put forward by the
Greek people.
The basis for the Greek classification is:
Temperature: This system divides the world into three climatic zones which include
i. Torrid zone
ii. Temperate zone
iii. Frigid zone
i. Torrid zone:
This zone is found within the tropics (i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn).
The sun’s rays are vertical throughout the year.
The zone is very hot.
It has high temperature throughout the year
Fig. 2.19. Greek classification of climate
ii. Temperate zone
This zone is found between the torrid and frigid zones.
The zone is also called the middle latitudes.
The sun is never overhead in this zone.
The altitude of the midday sun varies throughout the year.
It has mild or moderate temperatures.
It has seasonal contrasts in temperature
iii. Frigid zone
This zone is found in the Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic regions).
The zone is generally cold with low temperature throughout the year
It has lots of ice-caps in the greater part of the year
These zones were divided by lines of the tropics and the polar circles. The system only emphasises
temperature, leaving out other climatic factors. The system is very subjective and not very useful
in modern times.
Advantages of Greek Classification
i. It is very simple to understand.
ii. It is still in use today with some modifications where necessary.
Criticisms of Greek Classification
i. It emphasises only one parameter which is temperature
ii. It ignores other elements that make up the climate of an area
iii. It does not quantify
iv. It fails to recognise climates such as those of the humid and the desert regions.
v. It ignores the influence of latitude, altitude, presence of vegetation and wind system.
vi. The Greek system uses over-generalisation.
vii. It rejects the influence of land forms on climate
viii. It was too simplified.
Koppen System of Classification of Climate: The best known system of climatic classification was
the one devised by Dr. Wladimir Koppen of the University of Graz (Austria) in 1918.
The basis of Koppen’s classification is temperature and rainfall (precipitation)
The main features of Koppen’s classification: He identified five major climatic groups which
correspond with the five principal vegetation groups. They are represented by capital letters as
follows:
A type- Tropical rainy climate
This is a moist and hot climate
It has average monthly temperature above 180C.
It has heavy rainfall throughout the year which exceeds annual evaporation.
Fig 2.10 Koppen’s classification of world climates
B type- Dry climates
The annual evaporation exceeds annual rainfall.
It lacks surplus water and aridity is pronounced.
No river flows permanently in this region.
C type- Warm temperate rainy climates (Humid mesothermal climates)
The average temperature of the coldest month is below 180C but above -30C
The average temperature of the warmest month is over 100C.
It has both summer and winter seasons
D type- Snowy and cold climates (Cold snow forest climate)
The average temperature of the coldest month is below 30C.
The average warmest month is above 100C.
It has a frozen ground and snow cover for many months duration.
E type- Polar climates (Ice climate)
The average temperature of the warmest month is below 100C.
There is lack of warm season.
Precipitation is in the form of snow.
The five major climatic groups described above are further subdivided into different sub-groups
for each of the climates thus:
A has Af, Am and Aw Sub-groups.
B has BS and BW Sub-groups.
C has Cw, Cs and Cf Sub-groups.
D has Df and Dw Sub-groups.
E has ET and EF Sub-groups.
Guide to Understanding the Climatic Sub-groups: The small letters f, s, w and m reflect how
seasonal precipitation is and they mean the following:
f = no dry season generally.
s = no dry season in summer
w = no dry season in winter
m = moderate dry season in winter and summer.
The capital letters of S and W show the two sub-divisions of dry climates.
S = means Steppe or semi-desert.
W = means desert or arid.
In Polar climates
T = means Tundra
F = mean Ice Cap
Details of the Different Sub-groups
A-CLIMATES (TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES)
There are three sub-groups of the A-climates. These are Af, Am and Aw.
(1). Af = Tropical Rain Forest Climate Distribution
This climate is located within 50 north and south of the equator.
Areas
i. Amazon Basin of South America.
ii. The Zaire Basin of Central Africa.
iii. The Coasts of West Africa.
Fig. 2.11 The A-Climates of Koppen
Features
i. Temperatures are high and uniform throughout the year.
ii. Mean monthly temperatures are 270C.
iii. The annual range of temperature is about 300C.
iv. The diurnal range is between 60C and 80C.
v. There is rainfall throughout the year
vi. Amount of rainfall is between 1500mm and 2000mm.
vii. There is double maxima (two peaks of rainfall).
viii. Rainfall is mainly convectional
ix. Humidity is 70 -80% throughout the year.
(2) Am = Tropical Monsoon Climate Distribution: This climate is located within latitude 100C and
350C north and south of the equator.
Areas
i. Monsoon Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, South East
and Eastern Asia.
ii. Northern Australia
iii. Central America, West Indies and parts of the coast of Brazil.
iv. Parts of the Coast of East Africa and West Africa.
Features
i. High temperature of about 270C.
ii. The temperature range is 60C.
iii. High annual rainfall of about 1500mm.
iv. There is concentration of rain in the rainy season
v. There are alternating wet and dry seasons.
(3) Aw = Tropical Grassland of Savannah Distribution: This is located within 50 – 250 north and
50 – 200 south of the equator.
Areas
i. Central America.
ii. North West of South America
iii. Interior uplands of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay.
iv. South Central and Eastern Africa.
v. West Africa.
vi. West Malaysia.
vii. Parts of India and South East Asia
viii. Northern Australia.
Features
i. Temperatures are more extreme 210C - 300C.
ii. Higher range of temperature of 90C.
iii. Rainfall between 250mm and 1500mm.
iv. Rainfall is seasonal, mainly in summer.
v. Rainfall is mainly convectional single maximum.
B-CLIMATES (DRY CLIMATES): There two sub-groups of the B Climates. These are BS and
BW.
(1) BS = Steppe (Semi-Arid) Climate Distribution: This climate is located within 300C - 400C
north and south of the equator.
Areas: Italy, Argentina, Uruguay, South Africa, and Australia.
Features
i. There are extremes of temperatures cold winter and hot summer.
ii. It has temperature of 190C - 420C.
iii. The annual range of temperature is 400C.
iv. Annual rainfall is 508mm in summer.
v. The relative humidity is very low.
(2) BW = Desert (Arid) Climate Distribution: Found in western coasts of continents 150N –
300N of the equator.
Areas: West Africa, South Africa, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Namibia and Iran.
Features
i. High temperature between 300C and 580C.
ii. The temperature range is 110C.
iii. Low annual rainfall of 150mm/
iv. The zone is blown by cold currents
v. It has low relative humidity.
(3) C – Climates (Warm Temperate Rainy Climate): There are three sub-groups of the C-
climates. These are Cf, Cw and Cs.
i. Cf = Mild humid climate: It has no dry season with the least month of rainfall having
30mm.
ii. Cw = Mild humid climate: It has a dry winter with heavy rainfall in summer.
iii. Cs = Mild humid climate: It has dry summer with heavy rainfall in winter.
(4) D – Climates (Snowy and Cold Climates): There are two sub-groups in the D-climates.
These are Df and Dw.
i. Df = Snowy forest climate: It has moist winter, no dry season with cold climate.
ii. Dw = Snowy forest climate: It has dry winter with very cold climate.
(5) E – Climates (Polar Climate): The E –Climate has two sub-groups. These are ET and EF.
i. ET = Tundra Climate: Average temperature of the warmest month is less than 100C but
greater than 00C. It has ice caps. It is found in extremes of North and South poles.
Advantages of Koppen’s Classification
The Koppen’s system of classification is widely acceptable over other systems because:
i. It is very simple to understand.
ii. It is objective.
iii. It is quantitative because numerical values are used for defining boundaries of climatic
groups.
iv. It is commonly used in teaching at various levels of educational institutions.
v. It uses more than one parameter for classification.
Disadvantages of Koppen’s Classification
i. It did not consider the climate of highlands.
ii. Letters used are too many and confusing.
iii. There is no clear distinction of one climate from another.
Differences between Greek and Koppen’s Systems of Climatic Classification
(1) Greek’s climatic classification is based solely on temperature while Koppen’s is based on
climate and vegetation.
(2) Greek’s classification has three major belts while Koppen’s classification has five major
climatic types.
(3) Koppen’s employs quantitative approach in the classification while, Greek’s employs
descriptive approach.
(4) Greek’s classification does not recognise sub-groups, whereas Koppen’s recognises
various sub-groups.
