SREENIVASA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES.

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Name of the Faculty : Mrs. B. K. Shalini
Department : Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Subject Name : Electric Vehicles
Subject Code : 20EEE474
UNIT -1: ELECTRIC AND HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Configuration of Electric Vehicles, Performance of Electric Vehicles, Traction motor
characteristics, Tractive effort and Transmission requirement, Vehicle performance, Tractive
effort in normal driving, Energy consumption Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains,
Architecture of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains, Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains, Parallel
hybrid electric drive trains.
Introduction to Electric Vehicles:
In 1900, steam technology was advanced. The advantages of steam-powered cars
included high performance in terms of power and speed. However, the disadvantages of steam-
powered cars included poor fuel economy and the need to ―fire up the boiler‖ before driving.
Feed water was a necessary input for steam engine, therefore could not tolerate the loss of fresh
water. Later, Steam condensers were applied to the steam car to solve the feed water problem.
However, by that time Gasoline cars had won the marketing battle.
Gasoline cars of 1900 were noisy, dirty, smelly, cantankerous, and unreliable. In
comparison, electric cars were comfortable, quiet, clean, and fashionable. Ease of control was
also a desirable feature. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900 and are still used in modern cars.
Hence lead acid batteries have a long history (since 1881) of use as a viable energy storage
device. Golden age of Electrical vehicle marked from 1890 to 1924 with peak production of
electric vehicles in 1912. However, the range was limited by energy storage in the battery.
After every trip, the battery required recharging. At the 1924 automobile show, no electric cars
were on display. This announced the end of the Golden Age of electric-powered cars.
The range of a gasoline car was far superior to that of either a steam or an electric car
and dominated the automobile market from 1924 to 1960. The gasoline car had one dominant
feature; it used gasoline as a fuel. The modern period starts with the oil embargoes and the
gasoline shortages during the 1970s which created long lines at gas stations. Engineers
recognized that the good features of the gasoline engine could be combined with those of the
electric motor to produce a superior car. A marriage of the two yields the hybrid automobile.

History of EV from 1890 to present day. (Electric Vehicle merged into hybrid electric
vehicle.)
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1) CONFIGURATION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Previously Electric vehicles was mainly converted from the existing ICEV (Internal
combustion engine vehicles) by replacing the IC (Internal Combustion) engine and fuel tank
with an electric motor and battery pack while retaining all the other components.
There were several drawbacks: Heavy weight, Lower flexibility and degraded
performance. This caused such type of EV to fade out. Modern EV is purposely built, based on
original body and frame designs. This satisfies the structure requirements unique to EVs and
makes use of the greater flexibility of electric Propulsion.

Modern Electric Drive Train:

Fig: Conceptual Illustration of a general EV Configuration

The Drive train consists of three major subsystems:

i. Electric motor Propulsion
ii. Energy source and
iii. Auxiliary
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i) Electric Motor Propulsion:
Comprised of the vehicle controller, power electronic converter, electric motor, mechanical
transmission and the driving wheels.
ii) Energy Source Subsystem:
Involves the energy source, energy management unit and energy refueling unit.
iii) Auxiliary subsystem:
Consists of the power steering unit, hotel climate control unit and auxiliary supply unit.
 Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller
provides proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to
regulate the power flow between the electric motor and the energy source.
 The backward power flow is due to the regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerated energy source is receptive (batteries, super cap and flywheels).
 Energy management unit cooperates with the vehicle controller to control the
regenerative braking and energy recovery.
 It also works with the energy refueling unit to control the refueling unit and to monitor
the usability of the energy source.
 Aux power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all
EV auxiliaries especially climate control and power steering units.
Configurations of EV:
The Possible EV Configurations are:
a) Conventional driveline with multi-gear transmission and clutch
b) Single gear transmission without need of a clutch
c) Integrated fixed gearing and differential
d) Two separate motors and fixed gearing with their driveshaft
e) Direct drive with two separate motors and fixed gearing
f) Two Separate in-wheel motor drives.
a) Conventional driveline with multi-gear transmission and clutch:
 Electric Propulsion replaces the IC Engine of a conventional vehicle drive train.
 Consists of Electric motor, a clutch, a gearbox and a differential.
 Clutch is used to connect or disconnect the power of electric motor from the driven
wheels.
 Gearbox provides a set of gear ratios to modify the speed-power profile to match the
load requirement.
 Differential is a mechanical device, which enables the wheels of both sides to be driven
at different speeds when the vehicle runs along a curved path.
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b) Single gear transmission without need of a clutch:

 With an electric motor that has a constant power in a long speed range, a fixed gearing
can replace the multi speed gearbox and reduce the need of a clutch.
 This configuration reduces the size and weight of the mechanical transmission, also
simplifies the drive train because gear shifting is not needed.

c) Integrated fixed gearing and differential:

 Similar to above configuration the electric motor, fixed gearing and the differential can
be further integrated into a single assembly while both axle points at both driving
wheels.
 Whole drive train is further simplified and compacted.

d) Two separate motors and fixed gearing with their driveshaft:

 The Mechanical differential is replaced by two traction motors.
 Each of them drives one side wheel and operates at a different speed when the vehicle
is running along a curved path.

e) Direct drive with two separate motors and fixed gearing:

 Traction motor is place inside a wheel. This arrangement so called in-wheel drive.
 A thin planetary gear set may be employed to reduce the motor speed and enhance the
motor torque.
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f) Two Separate in-wheel motor drives:

 By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing between the electric motor and the driving
wheels, the outer rotor of a low speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive can be directly
connected to the driving wheel
 Speed control of the electric motor is equivalent to the control of the wheel speed and
hence the vehicle speed.
 However, this arrangement requires the electric motor to have a higher torque to start
and accelerate the vehicle.

2) PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRIC VEHCILES:

Electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular due to their environmental benefits
and efficiency. Their performance is determined by several interconnected factors, including
the battery, motor, and drivetrain system. These components work together to provide the
desired driving experience.
Performance Indicators:
 Range: The distance an EV can travel on a single charge depends primarily on battery
capacity and the vehicle's energy efficiency.
 Speed & Acceleration: EVs offer instant torque delivery, leading to rapid acceleration.
Maximum speed is limited by the motor's capabilities and the transmission system.
 Energy Consumption: This refers to the energy used per distance travelled, often
measured in Wh/km or kWh/100km.
 Charging Time: The time required to fully recharge the battery varies based on the
battery's capacity and the charging infrastructure (Level 1, 2, or 3 chargers).
Factors influencing performance:
 Battery: Size, chemistry (e.g., Lithium-ion, Solid-state, etc.), and state of health (SoH)
directly impact range.
 Motor and Powertrain: The motor's efficiency, design, and power electronics
significantly affect performance.
 Vehicle Weight and Aerodynamics: Heavier vehicles and those with less
aerodynamic designs require more energy to move, reducing efficiency.
 Driving Conditions: Speed, acceleration, terrain (hills require more power), and traffic
(stop-and-go driving can be inefficient) all play a role.
 Ambient Temperature: Extreme cold and heat reduce battery efficiency and range.
 Tire Health: Proper tire pressure and tread depth reduce rolling resistance, improving
efficiency.
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 Regenerative Braking: This system recovers energy lost during braking and feeds it
back into the battery, boosting range and performance.
 Road Grade and Payload: The steepness of the road and the weight carried affect the
energy required for propulsion and hill climbing.
Battery Consideration:
 Lithium-ion Batteries: These are widely used in EVs due to their high energy
density and power density compared to older battery types like lead-acid batteries.
 Battery Management System (BMS): A crucial component for optimal battery
performance and safety, ensuring the battery operates within a safe range (Safety
Operation Area - SOA).
 Battery Optimization: Thermal management systems are crucial for maintaining
optimal battery temperatures, which affects battery life and performance.
 Battery Degradation: Factors like current discharge rate and temperature
variations can affect battery cycle life and calendar life.

3) TRACTION MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS:

Electric vehicle traction motors are characterized by their ability to provide high torque
at low speeds for acceleration and hill climbing, and lower torque at higher speeds for
cruising. They also need to withstand frequent acceleration and deceleration cycles and
variations in speed and torque. Key characteristics include high efficiency, high power density,
low maintenance, and a robust design.
Types of Traction Motors:
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM): Known for high efficiency,
power density, and wide speed range.
 Induction Motors (IM): A common choice due to their robustness and cost-
effectiveness.
 Brushless DC Motors (BLDC): Offer high efficiency, faster response times, and
better heat management.
Performance Characteristics:
 High Torque at Low Speed: Traction motors need to deliver substantial torque at
low speeds to provide quick acceleration from a standstill and to handle uphill climbs.
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 High Power Density: They should be compact and lightweight to minimize the
overall vehicle weight and maximize space utilization.
 Wide Speed Range: Traction motors need to operate efficiently across a wide range
of speeds, from very low to high, to accommodate various driving conditions.
 High Efficiency: High efficiency is crucial for maximizing driving range and
minimizing energy consumption.
 Robust Design: They need to be durable and reliable to withstand the rigors of daily
driving and various environmental conditions.
 Fast Response Time: The motor needs to respond quickly to driver inputs for smooth
and responsive acceleration.
 Regenerative Braking: Many traction motors can also act as generators during
braking, converting kinetic energy back into electrical energy and feeding it back into
the battery.
 Peak Power: This is the maximum power output the motor can deliver for a short
duration, often during acceleration.
 Constant Torque Region: This is the speed range where the motor can deliver
maximum torque.
 Operating Temperature: Permanent magnet motors are susceptible to
demagnetization at high temperatures, so thermal management is important.

4) TRACTIVE EFFORT AND TRANSMISSION REQUIREMENT:

 Tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and the vehicle speed
are given by
𝑇 𝑖 𝑖 ƞ
 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑔 0 𝑡
𝑟 𝑑
𝜋𝑁𝑚 𝑟𝑑
 𝑉= (m/s)
30𝑖𝑔 𝑖0
 Where 𝑇𝑚 (N-m) and 𝑁𝑚 (RPM) are the motor torque output and speed, 𝑖𝑔 is the gear
ratio of transmission, 𝑖0 is the gear ratio of final drive, ƞ𝑡 is the efficiency of the whole
driveline from the motor to the driven wheels, and 𝑟𝑑 is the radius of the driven wheels.
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 The use of a multi-gear or single-gear transmission depends mostly on the motor speed-
torque characteristic.
 At a given rated motor power, if the motor has a long constant power region, a single-
gear transmission would be sufficient for a high tractive effort at low speeds.
 Otherwise, a multi-gear transmission has to be used.
 Figure shows the tractive effort of an EV, along with the vehicle speed with a traction
motor of x=2 and a three-gear transmission.
 The first gear covers the speed region of a-b-c, second gear covers d-e-f and the third
gear covers g-f-h.
 ‘x’ is called as the speed ratio for a particular gear. Higher is the base speed for a gear,
lower is the speed ratio ‘x’.

Fig: Tractive effort versus vehicle speed with a traction motor of x=2. 3- gear transmission

Fig: Tractive effort versus vehicle speed with a traction motor of x=4. 2- gear transmission
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 Figure shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=4 and a two-gear
transmission.
 The first gear covers the speed region of a-b-c and the second gear covers d-e-f.
 Figure shows the tractive effort with a traction motor of x=6 and a single-gear
transmission.
 These three designs have the same tractive effort versus vehicle speed profiles.
Therefore the vehicles will have the same acceleration and grade ability
performance.

Fig: Tractive effort versus vehicle speed with a traction motor of x=6. 1- gear transmission

5) VEHICLE PERFORMANCE:
Basic electric vehicle performance includes maximum speed, gradeability and acceleration.
a) The Maximum Speed: A vehicle can be easily found by the interaction point of the
tractive effort curve with the resistance curve (rolling resistance plus aerodynamic
drag), in the tractive effort versus vehicle speed diagram shown in figures.
Such an intersection point does not exist in some designs, which usually use a larger
traction motor or a large gear ratio. In this case, the maximum vehicle speed is
determined by the maximum speed of the traction motor as:
𝜋𝑁𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑑
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (m/s),
30𝑖𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑖0
Where 𝑁𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the allowed maximum RPM of the traction motor, 𝑖𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the
minimum gear ratio of the transmission (for higher gear).
b) Gradeability: is determined by the net tractive effort of the vehicle,
𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡 − 𝐹𝑟 − 𝐹𝑤 ), as shown in the figure. At mid and high speeds,
the gradeability is smaller than the gradeability at low speeds. The maximum grade that
the vehicle can overcome at the given speed can be calculated by
𝐹𝑡−𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐹𝑡 −(𝐹𝑟 +𝐹𝑤 )
i= =
𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝑔
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Where Ft is the tractive effort on the driven wheels, Fr is the tire rolling resistance,
and 𝐹𝑤 is the aerodynamic drag. However, at low speeds, the gradeability is much
larger. Calculation with higher accuracy uses, the formula given below
𝑑 − 𝑓𝑟 √1 − 𝑑 2 + 𝑓𝑟2
sin ∝ =
1 + 𝑓𝑟2
Here d= (𝐹𝑡 − 𝐹𝑤 )/𝑀𝑔 is called the vehicle performance factor and 𝐹𝑟 is the tire rolling
resistance coefficient.
c) Acceleration: Performance of a vehicle is evaluated by the time used to accelerate the
vehicle from a zero speed to 100 Km/h speed for passenger cars. For such cars, this
performance is more important than maximum cruising speed and gradeability, since it
is the acceleration requirement, rather than the maximum cruising speed or the
gradeability that dictate the power rating of the motor drive.
𝛿𝑀
The aceeleration time 𝑡𝑎 = 2𝑃 (𝑉𝑓2 +𝑉𝑏2 ).
𝑡
Here, 𝑉𝑏 and 𝑉𝑓 are base speed and final acceleration speed, 𝑃𝑡 is the tractive power on
the driven wheels transmitted from the traction motor corresponding the vehicle base
speed, 𝛿 is the vehicle rotational inertial constant.
𝛿𝑀
𝑃𝑡 = 2𝑡 (𝑉𝑓2 +𝑉𝑏2 )
𝑎
The power rating obtained from 𝑃𝑡 equation is only the power consumed for vehicle
acceleration. To accurately determine the tractive power rating, the power consumed in
overcoming the rolling resistance and dynamic drag should be considered.

6) TRACTIVE EFFORT IN NORMAL DRIVING:

The vehicle performance described dictates the vehicle capabilities with respect to
speed, gradeability, and acceleration, thus dictating the power capacity of the power train.
However, in normal driving conditions these maximum capabilities are rarely used. During
most of the time the power train operates with partial loads.

Fig: Power Rating versus Speed factor

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Actual tractive effort and vehicle speed vary widely with operating conditions, such as
acceleration, deceleration, uphill, downhill motion and so on. These variation are associated
with traffic environment as well as type of vehicles. City and highway traffic conditions vary
greatly, as do the different missions of the vehicles, such as passenger car and vehicle with
regular operation routes and schedules.

Fig: Acceleration Time and Distance versus Final Speed

In a short time period, the speed is assumed to be linear with time, and acceleration is constant
𝑑𝑉
as shown in the below figure, the acceleration, 𝑑𝑡 in a driving cycle, can be obtained by
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑘+1−𝑉𝑘
= (k = 1, 2, ……. n, n-total member of points)
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑘+1−𝑡𝑘

Fig: Acceleration being consumed constant with a short time period

7) ENERGY CONSUMPTION:

Energy consumption is defined as energy consumed by the electrical vehicle to drive.

In transportation, the unit of energy is usually kilowatt-hour (kWh) rather than Joule or
kilojoule (J or kJ). The energy consumption per unit distance in kWh/km is generally used to
evaluate the vehicle energy consumption.
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However, for ICE vehicles the commonly used unit is a physical unit of fuel volume
per unit distance, such as litres per 100 km (1/100 km). In the United states, the distances per
unit volume of fuel is usually used; this is expressed as miles per gallon (mpg).
Energy consumption is an integration of the power output at the battery terminals. For
Propelling, the battery power output is equal to the resistance power and power losses in the
transmission and the motor drive, including power losses in the electronics. The power losses
in transmission and motor drive are represented by their efficiencies.
The total energy consumption can be defined as sum of the battery power output and
battery power input.
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∫ 𝑃𝑏−𝑜𝑢𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑃𝑏−𝑖𝑛 . 𝑑𝑡
Where, 𝑃𝑏−𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Battery Power Output (traction)
𝑃𝑏−𝑖𝑛 = Battery Power Input (braking)
Efficiency of a traction motor varies with respect to the motor speed and motor torque
plane as shown in the figure.

Fig: Electric Motor Efficiency Characteristics.

8) CONCEPT OF HYBRID ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAINS:

Basically any vehicle power train is required to 1) Develop sufficient power to meet the
demands of vehicle performance, 2) Carry Sufficient energy onboard to support the vehicle
while driving a sufficient range, 3) Demonstrate high efficiency, and 4) Emit few
environmental pollutants.
Broadly speaking, a vehicle may have more than one power train. Here, the power train
is defined as the combination of the energy source and the energy converter or power source,
such as the gasoline (or diesel) – heat engine system, the hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric motor
system, the chemical battery-electric motor system, and so on. A Vehicle that has two or more
power trains is called a Hybrid Vehicle. A Hybrid vehicle with an electrical Power trains is
called an HEV.
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A Hybrid drivetrain can supply its power to the load by a selective power train. There
are many available patterns of operating two power trains to meet the load requirement:
1) Power Train 1 alone delivers its power to the load.
2) Power Train 2 alone delivers its power to the load.
3) Both Power Train 1 and Power train 2 deliver their power to the load simultaneously.
4) Power Train 2 obtains power from the load (regenerative braking).
5) Power Train 2 obtains power from Power Train 1.
6) Power Train 2 obtains power from power train 1 and the load simultaneously.
7) Power Train 1 delivers power to the load and to power train 2 simultaneously.
8) Power Train 1 delivers its power to power train 2, and power train 2 delivers its power to
load.
9) Power Train 1 delivers its power to the load, and the load delivers the power to power train
2.

Fig: Conceptual illustration of Hybrid Electric Drivetrain

In a hybrid vehicle, steady power may be provided by an IC Engine, a stirling engine, a fuel
cell, and so on. The IC engine or the fuel cell can be much smaller than that in a single power
train design because the dynamic power is taken by the dynamic power sources and then the
engine can operate steadily in its most efficient region. The dynamic power may be provided
by an electric motor powered by batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheels and their combinations.

Fig: A Load Power is decomposed into steady and dynamic components

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9) ARCHITECTURE OF HYBRID ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAINS:

In HEV one power train favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell. The
other power train in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power. The total energy output
from the dynamic power train will be zero in the whole driving cycle. Generally, electric motors
are used to meet the dynamic power demand. This hybrid drive train concept can be
implemented by different configurations as follows:
 Series configuration
 Parallel configuration
 Series-parallel configuration
 Complex configuration
In an HEV, there are two kinds of energy flowing in the drivetrain: mechanical energy and
electrical energy. Adding two powers together or splitting one power into two at the power
merging point always occurs with the same power type, that is electrical or mechanical not
electrical and mechanical.

Fig: Classifications of HEVs. a) Series (electrical coupling), b) Parallel (mechanical coupling),

c) series-parallel (mechanical and electrical coupling), d) complex (mechanical and electrical
coupling)
a) Series Hybrid Drive train: The Key feature of this configuration is that two electric powers
are added together in the power converter, which functions as an electric power coupler to
control the power flow from the batteries and generators to the electric motor, or in the reverse
direction from the electric motor to the batteries.
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b) Parallel Hybrid Drive Train: The Key feature of this configuration is that two mechanical
powers are added together in a mechanical coupler.
c) Series-Parallel Hybrid Drive Train: The distinguishing feature of this configuration is the
employment of two power couplers-mechanical and electrical.
d) Complex Hybrid Drive Train: It is similar to series-parallel and the only difference is that
the electrical coupling function is moved from power converter to the batteries, and one more
power converter is added between the motor/generator and the batteries.

10) SERIES ELECTRIC HYBRID DRIVE TRAINS:

Fig: Configuration of a Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train

The Configuration of series hybrid electric drive train consists of fuel tank, IC Engine,
Generator and Battery. The uni-directional energy source is Fuel tank, the Bidirectional energy
source is Battery. Traction motor can be controlled by either motor or generator. The series
hybrid electric drive trains has the following operation modes, they are,
1) Pure Electric Mode: Here the engine is turned off and vehicle moves with battery.
2) Pure Engine Mode: The Battery supply is turned off and vehicle consumes fuel for its
movement.
3) Hybrid Traction Mode: Here both battery and engine acts together.
4) Engine Traction with Battery Charging Mode: Here Engine supplies power to charge
the batteries and move the vehicle simultaneously.
5) Regenerative braking Mode: The engine generator is turned off and the power generator
from the engine helps the battery to reuse.
6) Battery Charging mode: Battery should be separately charged for its operation.
7) Hybrid Battery Charging Mode: Both Engine generator, batteries operate for the vehicle
movement.
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Advantages of Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains:

 The Control Strategy of hybrid electric vehicle in series is very simple.
 These vehicles can be used for any kind of routes.
 Top Speed ratio is ideal.
Disadvantages of Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains:
 Generator placed in it cost more.
 The inefficiencies of the generator and the traction motor may cause significant losses.
 Because the traction motor is the only power plant propelling the vehicle, it must be
sized to produce enough power for optimal vehicle performance in terms of acceleration
and gradeability.
11) PARALLEL ELECTRIC HYBRID DRIVE TRAINS:

Fig: Configuration of a Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train

A Parallel hybrid electric drive trains is one in which engine supplies mechanical power
directly to the wheels. The Battery alone will supplies energy to the wheel for its movement.
The Major advantage of parallel connection is both engine and battery supply torque to the
drive wheels. It is compact because there is no need of additional generators.
The engine and motor torque can be controlled individually. There are two kinds of parallel
hybrid electric drive trains, they are
1) Parallel Hybrid drive train with torque coupling.
2) Parallel Hybrid drive train with speed coupling.
1) Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling:
The Three Port, Two degree of freedom mechanical device. Port-1 is a unidirectional
input, and ports 2 and 3 are bidirectional input or output, but both are not input at the same
time. Here input means energy flowing into the device and output means the energy flow out
of the device. In a hybrid vehicle application, port-1 is connected to an IC engine directly or
through a mechanical transmission. Port-2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly
or through a mechanical transmission, Port-3 is connected to the drive wheels through a
mechanical linkages.
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Fig: Torque Coupling Device

The Power output to the vehicle wheels is
𝑇3 𝜔3 = 𝑇1 𝜔1 + 𝑇2 𝜔2
The Torque coupler can be expressed as
𝑇3 = 𝑘1 𝑇1 + 𝑘2 𝑇2
Where,
𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 are the structural parameters of the torque coupler, which are described by the
gear ratios and usually are constant when the device design is fixed.
𝑇3 is the load torque.
𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are propelling torques that are independent of each other and can be controlled
independently.
𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 are the angular velocities linked together and cannot be controlled independently.
𝜔1 𝜔2
𝜔3 = =
𝑘1 𝑘2
2) Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling:
The Powers produced by the two power plants may be coupled together by adding their
speeds, as shown in the figure. Similar to mechanical torque coupler , the speed coupler is
also a three port, two degree of freedom mechanical device. Port-1 may be connected to an IC
engine with unidirectional energy flow. Port 2 and 3 may be connected to an electric motor
and to the load, both with bidirectional energy flow.
The mechanical speed coupler has the property
𝜔3 = 𝑘1 𝜔1 + 𝑘2 𝜔2

Fig: Speed Coupling Device

Where,
𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 are the structural and geometric parameters of the speed coupler.
𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 are the angular velocities linked together and can be controlled independently.
Due to the constraint of power conservation, the torque are linked together by

𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇3 = =
𝑘1 𝑘2