IPv4 addresses, Address space,

Notations -Classful
addressing- problem solving
 IPv4 Address ,address space

• The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.

• An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
• The address space of IPv4 is 232 (4,294,967,296)
• Notation.
• Binary notation
• Dotted-decimal notation

19.2
 IPv4

• 32 bits long
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a
router) to the Internet.

• Unique and Universal.

• Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at the
same time
• Addressing system must be accepted by any host that wants to be
connected to the Internet.
IPV4 NOTATIONS
• An easier way to remember IP addresses is by
assigning to them a name.
• (e.g., www.google.com), which is resolver through
the Domain Name System (DNS).
• Strictly speaking, an IP address identifies an
interface that is capable of sending and receiving IP
datagrams.
• One system can have multiple such interfaces.
• Usually, hosts have only one interface (thus, one IP
address), whereas routers have many interfaces (thus,
many IP addresses).
IPv4 Header Structure

• basic IPv4 header contains 12 fields.

• each field of the IPv4 header has a specific use.
• Shaded field are removed in IPv6.
 IPv4 Header - Review
• Version (4 bits)
• Indicates the version of IP and is set to 4.
• Internet Header Length (4 bits)
• Indicates the number of 4-byte blocks in the IPv4 header.
• Because an IPv4 header is a minimum of 20 bytes in size, the smallest
value of the Internet Header Length (IHL) field is 5.
• Type of Service (4 bits)
• Indicates the desired service expected by this packet for delivery
through routers across the IPv4 internetwork.
 IPv4 Header - Review

• Total Length (16 bits)

• Indicates the total length of the IPv4 packet (IPv4 header + IPv4 payload) and
does not include link layer framing.
• Identification (16 bits)
• Identifies this specific IPv4 packet.
• The Identification field is selected by the originating source of the IPv4 packet. If
the IPv4 packet is fragmented, all of the fragments retain the Identification field
value so that the destination node can group the fragments for reassembly.
• Flags (3 bits)
• Identifies flags for the fragmentation process.
• There are two flags—one to indicate whether the IPv4 packet might be
fragmented and another to indicate whether more fragments follow the current
fragment.
• Fragment Offset (13 bits)
• Indicates the position of the fragment relative to the original IPv4 payload.
 IPv4 Header - Review

• Time to Live ( 8 bits)

• Indicate the maximum number of links on which an IPv4 packet can travel before
being discarded.
• Originally used as a time count with which an IPv4 router determined the length
of time required (in seconds) to forward the IPv4 packet, decrementing the TTL
accordingly. When the TTL equals 0,an ICMP Time Expired-TTL Expired in Transit
message is sent to the source IPv4 address and the packet is discarded.
• Protocol (8 bits)
• Identifies the upper layer protocol.
• For example, TCP uses a Protocol of 6, UDP uses a Protocol of 17, and ICMP uses
a Protocol of 1.
• The Protocol field is used to demultiplex an IPv4 packet to the upper layer
protocol.
 IPv4 Header - Review

• Header Checksum (16 Bits)

• Provides a checksum on the IPv4 header only.
• The IPv4 payload is not included in the checksum calculation as the IPv4 payload
and usually contains its own checksum..
• Source Address ( 32 bits)
• Stores the IPv4 address of the originating host.
• Destination Address (32 bits)
• Stores the IPv4 address of the destination host.
• Options (multiple of 32 bits)
• Stores one or more IPv4 options.
Types of addressing

• Classful Addressing
• Classless Addressing
 Classful Addressing

• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five

classes: A, B, C, D, and E.
Example
19.1
Change
Change thethe following
following IPv4
IPv4 addresses
addresses
from
from binary
binary notation
notation to
to dotted-decimal
dotted-decimal
notation.
notation.

Solution
Solution
We
We replace
replace each
each group
group of
of 88 bits
bits with
with its
its
equivalent
equivalent decimal
decimal number
number (see
(see
Appendix
Appendix B) B) and
and add
add dots dots for
for
separation.
separation.
 Example
19.2
Change the following IPv4 addresses
from dotted-decimal notation to binary
notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its
binary equivalent
Example
19.4
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A
address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0.
This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A. 19.17
Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful
IPv4 addressing
Not
e
In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted.
Table 19.2 Default masks for classful
addressing
Subnet Mask
• A subnet mask is a 32-bit number used in IPv4 (or 128-
bit for IPv6) that divides your IP address into network
and host portions. The network portion ensures that
data packets reach the right network, while the host
portion identifies a specific device on that network.

• From the five different classes of the network, the d

class network is reserved for multicasting; on the other
hand, the class network is not used on the internet. It is
because the internet engineering task force
(IETF) they are out for research.
• The network portion in the first octet is reflected by
the class a subnet mask, and it leaves opted, three and
four for the network manager for the purpose of
dividing the hosts and subnets as required. 65,536
hosts are included in the class a network.
• The class b subnet mask makes sure the first two actors
further network without the remaining part of the
address, and the 16-bit after it is four and three for the
host and subnet part. A number from 256 to 65,534
hosts for the class b network.
• On the other hand, in the class c subnet mask, there are
three updates with a combination of hosts and the
southerners in the last octet 4 8 bits. Lower
than 254 hosts in class c, there are a smaller number of
networks.
• Rather than there are natural masks or default subnet
masks of class a, b &c.
• Class a: 255.0.0.0
• Class b: 255.255.0.0
• IP address consists of a network component and a host
component. Let’s take 192.168.123.132 as an example.
The first three octets (192.168.123.) represent the
network and the last octet identifies a machine on your
network.
• IP addresses consist of 32 binary bits (4 x 8), but since
they are long and complex, we use a dot decimal system.
• 192.168.123.132 =
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100
• The subnet mask reflects the network portion in an IP
address. It might look look something this:
• 255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
• When you combine them, you get:
• 11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000 (network
address: 192.168.123.0)
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100 (host address:
000.000.000.132)
• 192.168.123.0 is your subnet, while 192.168.123.132 is a
destination address (a device in your subnet).
Subnetting

• Subnetting is a technique used in computer networking to divide a

single network into multiple smaller networks, known as
subnetworks or subnets. The purpose of subnetting is to partition
a large network into smaller, more efficient subnets, which can
improve network performance, security, and organization.
• In a subnetted network, each subnet has its own unique
subnet mask and network address. These unique subnet
mask and network address allows devices on the subnet
to communicate with each other directly without having
to go through a router or other networking device. Thus
improving communication’s speed and efficiency within
the subnet and reducing network traffic on the wider
network.
• Subnetting is often used in larger organizations, such as
companies or universities, to create separate networks
for different departments or groups of users.
• For example, you could use the subnet mask
255.255.255.0, which would give you two subnets with
128 host addresses each:
• Subnet 1: 192.168.1.1 – 192.168.1.128
• Subnet 2: 192.168.1.129 – 192.168.1.256
How Does Subnetting Work?
• Subnetting works by dividing the host part of an IP
address into two or more subnets using a subnet mask.
The subnet mask is a series of ones and zeros that
determines which portion of the IP address represents
the network and which portion represents the host.
• In order to better understand it, consider the following
IP address and subnet mask:
• IP address: 192.168.1.100
• Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
• The subnet mask comprises four octets (sets of eight
bits), each represented by a number from 0 to 255. In
this case, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, which means
that the first three octets (192.168.1) represent the
network portion of the IP address, and the fourth octet
(100) represents the host portion of the address.
FLSM
• There are two types of Subnetting: FLSM and VLSM. In
FLSM, all subnets have an equal number of host
addresses and use the same subnet mask.
• FLSM stands for Fixed Length Subnet Mask. In it, we
break the default IP subnet into the same-sized subnets.
For example, if the default subnet has 12 IP addresses,
we can break it into three equal-sized subnets having 4
IP addresses in each.
• Fixed-length subnet mask (FLSM) is a subnet
deployment strategy in which a block of IP addresses is
split into several subnets of identical length. It is also
known as classful subnetting.
consider an IP address 198.168.10.0
• Now we have to divide this IP address into 4 subnetwork parts.
After dividing we have to find out the range of IP addresses blocks.
• 4 Simple Steps for Calculating Network Blocks of IP Address
• Step 1: Calculate the required subnet bit. In this subnetting
process, we will borrow the bit from the host side.
• Now here is the question arise, which bits belong to the host side
and network side?
• We will find it with the help of subnet masks. We are given a Class
C IP address and default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0
• Every octet consists of 8-bit in this case we are having 24 1’s in
network bit.
• As we know that every binary value having two possible values
either 0 or 1. And with one binary we can make two value and
with two binary values, we can make four values. And with three
binary value, we can make 8 values and so on.
• i.e. 21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8 24 = 16 Here, we need to configure 4 subnets
for this we need to borrow 2 bits and making the MSB of host bit of
subnet mask to 1 and the value we will get,
• 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
• From this we get the mask value for the subnet.
• Step 2: In this step we will be calculating updated subnet mask.
• Step 3: We will find the range in this step.
• Formula,
• Range: (Maximum Subnet Mask – Updated Subnet Mask)
Maximum Subnet Mask is always 255.255.255.255 for every case
• 255.255.255.255 - 255.255.255.192 = 0. 0. 0. 63 Here is the range for
network we have got is 0.0.0.63
• Step 4: Now we will divide the whole network with the help of
the range.
• First Network Block: 198.168.10.0 – 198.168.10.63
• For this block Network ID will be 198.168.10.0 and Broadcast
address will be 198.168.10.63
• Second Network Block:198.168.10.64 – 198.168.10.127
• For this block Network ID will be 198.168.10.64 and Broadcast
address will be 198.168.10.127
• Third Network Block: 198.168.10.128 – 198.168.10.191
• For this block Network ID will be 198.168.10.128 and Broadcast
address will be 198.168.10.191
• Fourth Network Block:198.168.10.192 – 198.168.10.255
• For this block Network ID will be 198.168.10.192 and Broadcast
address will be 198.168.10.255
• Subnet masks will remain same for every network block i.e.
255.255.255.192
 Two level hierarchy - Three
level hierarchy- subnet mask -
Address aggregation- problem
solving.
 Hierarchy of IPv4 Addressing

• Each address in the block can be considered as a two-level

hierarchical structure: the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network; the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host.
• Why Hierarchy?
Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an
IPv4 address
Two Level of Hierarchy
Three Level of Hierarchy
 Address Aggregation

• IP Address Aggregator is a utility developed to

automate minimization process and convert bunch
of IPv4 addresses into smallest continuous range(s)
possible. IP aggregation is commonly performed by
network engineers working with BGP & routers.
• This utility will help webmasters to configure server
firewalls, apache, address masks and so on.
 Special addresses.
Special Blocks and Special
addresses in each block.
 Special Addresses

• This-host address
• Limited-broadcast address
• Loopback address
• Private addresses
• Multicast addresses.
 Special Addresses

This-host Address

• The only address in the block 0.0.0.0/32 is called

the this-host address.
• It is used whenever a host needs to send an IP
datagram but it does not know its own address to
use as the source address.
 Special Addresses

Limited-broadcast Address

• The only address in the block 255.255.255.255/32 is called

the limited-broadcast address.
• It is used whenever a router or a host needs to send a
datagram to all devices in a network.
• The routers in the network, however, block the packet
having this address as the destination;
• the packet cannot travel outside the network.
 Special Addresses

Loopback Address
• The block 127.0.0.0/8 is called the loopback address.
• A packet with one of the addresses in this block as the
destination address never leaves the host; it will remain in the
host.
• Any address in the block is used to test a piece of software in the
machine.
• For example, we can write a client and a server program in
which one of the addresses in the block is used as the server
address. We can test the programs using the same host to see if
they work before running them on different computers.
MULTICAST ADDRESS
• The block 224.0.0.0/4 is reserved for multicast addresses
Classes and Blocks
One problem with classful addressing is that each class is
divided into a fixed number of blocks with each block
having a fixed size
The classful addressing wastes a large part of the address
space
Classless addressing - Variable
length blocks- Two level
addressing- Block allocation -
Sub netting- problem solving
 Classless Addressing

• To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access

to the Internet, classless addressing was designed and implemented.
 Classless Addressing

Address Blocks
• In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be
connected to the Internet, it is granted a BLOCK (RANGE) OF
ADDRESSES.

• The size of the block (the number of addresses) varies based on the
nature and size of the entity.

• For example:
• A household only two addresses

• A large organization given thousands of addresses.

• An ISP, as the Internet service provider given thousands or hundreds of

thousands based on the number of customers it may serve.
 Restriction

To simplify the handling of addresses, the Internet

authorities impose three restrictions on classless address
blocks:

• Addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another.

• Number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (I, 2,

4, 8, ... ).

• First address must be evenly divisible by the number of

addresses.
 Mask or subnet Mask
• A better way to define a block of addresses is to select
any address in the block and the mask.
• A mask is a 32-bit number in which
• n leftmost bits are 1 s
• 32 - n rightmost bits are O s.
• In classless addressing the mask for a block can take any
value from 0 to 32.
• It is very convenient to give just the value of n preceded
by a slash (CIDR notation).
 Network Address
• Can be found by setting the 32 - n rightmost bits in the binary
notation of the address to Os.

• Example

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is
the first/network address in the block?

Solution

• The binary representation of the given address is 11001101

00010000 00100101 00100111.

• If we set 32 - 28 rightmost bits to 0, we get 11001101 0001000

00100101 00100000 or 205.16.37.32.
 Broadcast Address
• Can be found by setting the 32 - n rightmost bits in the binary
notation of the address to 1 s.

• Example:

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the
last/broadcast address in the block? Solution

• The binary representation of the given address is 11001101

00010000 00100101 00100111.

• If we set 32 - 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get 11001101 00010000

00100101 00101111 or 205.16.37.47.
 Number of Addresses

• The number of addresses in the block is the difference between the

last and first address.
• It can easily be found using the formula .

• Eg: Find the number of addresses in above Example.

Soln
• The value of n is 28, which means that number of addresses is
or 16.
 Example

• Another way to find the network address, the broadcast address,

and the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-bit
binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number.
Eg: /28 can be represented as

11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 (twenty-eight Is and four

Os).
Find
• Network address
• Broadcast address
• The number of addresses
 Network/subnet address

• Found by ANDing the given addresses with the mask.

• ANDing here is done bit by bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1
if both bits are Is; the result is 0 otherwise.
• Address: 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
• Mask: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
Network
address/
neid/
subnet address: 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000
(or)
` 205.16.37.32.
 Broadcast address

• Found by ORing the given addresses with the

complement of the mask. ORing here is done bit by bit.

• The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if both bits are Os; the

result is 1 otherwise.
• The complement of a number is found by changing
each 1 to 0 and each 0 to 1.

• Address: 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111

• Mask : 00000000 00000000 00000000 00001111
• Broadcast
add: 11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
(or)
205.16.37.47.
 Number of addresses

• The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a
decimal number, and adding 1 to it.
• Mask complement:
000000000 00000000 00000000 00001111

• Number of addresses: 15 + 1 =16

Subnetting

Subnetting - which allows you to take one larger network

and break it into many smaller networks.

Reduced network traffic

Optimized network performance
Simplified management
Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances

Subnet Masks
Every machine on the network must know
which part of the host address will be used as the
subnet address
 Subnetting Class C Addresses
The Binary Method: Subnetting a Class C Address
The first subnet mask available with a Class C address, which borrows two bits from
subnetting. For this example, we are using 255.255.255.192.

192=11000000 Two bits for subnetting, 6 bits for defining the hosts in
each subnet. What are the subnets?

01000000=64 (all host bits off)

or
10000000=128 (all host bits off)
The Alternate Method: Subnetting a Class C Address

1. How many subnets does the subnet mask produce?

2. How many valid hosts per subnet?
3. What are the valid subnets?
4. What are the valid hosts in each subnet?
5. What is the broadcast address of each subnet?

Here is how you determine the answers to the five questions:

1. How many subnets? 2x–2=amount of subnets. X is the amount of masked bits, or
the 1s. For example, 11000000 is 22–2. In this example, there are 2 subnets.
2. How many hosts per subnet? 2x–2=amount of hosts per subnet. X is the amount of
unmasked bits, or the 0s. For example, 11000000 is 26–2. In this example, there are 62
hosts per subnet.
3. What are the valid subnets? 256–subnet mask=base number. For example,
256–192=64. Keep adding the variable to itself until you reach the subnet mask.
4. What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, minus
all 0s and all 1s.
5. What is the broadcast address for each subnet? Broadcast address is all host bits
turned on, which is the number immediately preceding the
next subnet.
 Practice Example 2: 255.255.255.224

In this example, you will subnet the network address 192.168.10.0

and subnet mask 255.255.255.224.
 Private address, Network
addresses translation -Super
netting.
 PUBLIC & PRIVATE ADDRESSES IN IPV4

• If direct (routed) or indirect (proxy or translator)

connectivity to the Internet is desired, there are
two types of addresses employed on the Internet
• Public addresses
• Private addresses

71
 Public addresses

• Public addresses are assigned by NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC) -

A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is
installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network.

• Consist of class-based network IDs or blocks of CIDR-based

addresses (called CIDR blocks) that are guaranteed to be globally
unique to the Internet.

• When the public addresses are assigned, routes are programmed

into the routers of the Internet so that traffic to the assigned public
addresses can reach their locations.
 Public Addresses

• Public ip are the ip that can be accessed by every one (i,e) every user
has the access to this ip's.

E.g: Yahoo.com, Google.com etc are the pubic ip's.

 Private Addresses

• Private IP addresses are used for numbering the computers in a

private network including home, school/Colleges/Universities and
business LANs in airports and hotels which makes it possible for the
computers in the network to communicate with each other.

• Private ip's are the ip that cannot be accessed by every one(i,e) they
are privately owned by an organization / private concern. Only the
user of that organisation has the access to this ip's.

Eg : SRM University
 Range of private ip

• Four blocks are assigned as private addresses: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/

12, 192.168.0.0/16.
• Range of private IP address are

excluding ips are public ip's.

 NAT – Network Address Translation
• A technology that can provide the mapping between the
private and universal addresses, and at the same time
support virtual private networks.
• Allows a site to use a set of private addresses for internal
communication and a set of global Internet addresses
(atleast one) for communication with the rest of the
world.
 Network Address Translation
• There are different flavors of NAT:
• Static NAT Designed to allow one-to-one mapping between
local and global addresses.
• Dynamic NAT Designed to map an unregistered IP address to a
registered IP address from out of a pool of registered IP
addresses.
Overloading This is the most popular type of NAT configuration.
Overloading is a form of dynamic NAT that maps multiple
unregistered IP addresses to a single registered IP address (many-
to-one) by using different ports.
Example
 NAT – Network Address Translation
• It is the way that the router translates the IP addresses of
packets that cross the internet/local network boundary.
• When computer “A” sends a packet out “from” that of computer “A” –
192.168.1.2. When the router passes that packet on to the internet, it
replaces the local IP address with the internet IP address assigned by the
ISP.
• It also keeps track, so that if a response comes back from somewhere on
the internet, the router knows to do the translation in reverse – replace
the internet IP address with the local IP address for machine “A” and
then send that response packet on to machine “A”.
• NAT is not restricted to private-to-public address translation,
though that is the most common application.
• NAT can also perform public-to-public address translation, as well
as private-to-private address translation.
Figure 19.10 A NAT
implementation
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
• Benefits
• Use of a single IP address
among many devices in a
network
• Use of a dynamic IP address
for home user for sharing
• Drawbacks
• Machines on the internet
cannot initiate
communications to local
machines – they can only
respond to communications
initiated by those local
machines. The net effect is
that the router then also
acts as a firewall.
Subnetting vs supernetting
Subnetting:

• Divide a large address block into smaller sub-

groups.
• If an organization was granted a large block in class A or B,
it could divide the addresses into several contiguous
groups and assign each group to smaller networks
(called subnets).

• Use of flexible net mask.

 Supernetting

• In supernetting, an organization can combine several class C

blocks to create a larger range of addresses.

• In other words, several networks are combined to create a

supernetwork or a supernet.

• For example:
• An organization that needs 1000 addresses can be granted four
contiguous class C blocks.
Intermediate devices - Hub,
Repeaters, Switch, Bridge-
Gateways -Structure of a
ROUTER
 Intermediate devices - Hubs
• A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least
complicated. Its job is very simple – anything that comes in one port is
sent out to the others. That is it broadcasts everything.
• If a message comes in for computer “A”, that message is sent out all the
other ports, regardless of which one computer “A” is on:
 Hubs
• And when computer “A” responds, its response also goes out to
every other port on the hub:

• Every computer connected to the hub “sees” everything that every

other computer on the hub sees. The computers themselves
decide if they are the targeted recipient of the message and when
a message should be paid attention to or not.
 Types of Hub

• Active Hub:- These are the hubs which have their

own power supply and can clean, boost and relay
the signal along with the network. It serves both as
a repeater as well as wiring centre. These are used
to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect
wiring from nodes and power supply from active
hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network
without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Drawbacks

• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all

connected devices.
• They do not have intelligence to find out best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 Ethernet Repeaters

Repeaters

• A repeater operates at the physical layer.

• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted
over the same network.
• They do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength.
• It is a 2 port device.
Because the functionality of repeaters has been built in to
other devices, such as hubs and switches, repeaters are rarely
used.
 Switches

• A switch does essentially what a hub does, but more efficiently.

• By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can
“learn” where particular addresses are.
• Initially, a switch knows nothing and simply sends on incoming
messages to all ports:

A 32-port Ethernet switch.

 Switches
• Even accepting that first message, however, the switch has learned
something – it knows on which connection the sender of the
message is located.
• Thus, when machine “A” responds to the message, the switches
only need to send that message out to the one connection:
 Switches

• In addition to sending the response through to the originator, the

switch has now learned something else – it now knows on which
connection machine “A” is located.
• That means that subsequent messages destined for machine “A”
need only be sent to that one port:
 Switches
• Switches learn the location of the devices that they are
connected to almost instantaneously.

• A switch is a data link layer device.

• The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data,

that makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that
have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port
only.

• The net result is that most network traffic only goes where it
needs to rather than to every port.

• On busy networks, this can make the network significantly faster.

 Bridge
• A bridge operates at data link layer.
• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
• It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol.
• It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.

M.RAJALAKSHMI
Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:-
• These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the
bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the
network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
• These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge
learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:-
• In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and the
frame specifies which route to follow.
• The host can discover frame by sending a special frame called discovery frame,
which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to destination.
• Translational bridge:-
• A translational bridge can convert from one networking system to another.
• It translates the data it receives.
• Translational bridges are useful for connecting two different networks, such as
Ethernet and Token Ring networks.
 Gateway
• A gateway, is a passage to connect two networks together that may
work upon different networking models.

• They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one
system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.

• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any
network layer.

• The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software

application that can perform the function of translating data from one
format to another.

• The key feature of a gateway is that it converts the format of the data,
not the data itself.
Gateway
 Router
• Routers are network devices that literally route data
around the network.
• By examining data as it arrives, the router can
determine the destination address for the data; then,
by using tables of defined routes, the router
determines the best way for the data to continue its
journey.
• Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers
normally connect LANs and WANs together.
Cisco Router
 Router

• Unlike bridges and switches, which use the

hardware-configured MAC address to determine
the destination of the data, routers use the
software-configured network address to make
decisions.
• This approach makes routers more functional than
bridges or switches, and it also makes them more
complex because they have to work harder to
determine the information.
• Functionality:
• When a router receives the data, it determines the destination
address by reading the header of the packet. Once the address is
determined, it searches in its routing table to get know how to reach
the destination and then forwards the packet to the higher hop on
the route. The hop could be the final destination or another router.
• Routing tables play a very pivotal role in letting the router makes a
decision. Thus a routing table is ought to be updated and complete.
• The two ways through which a router can receive information are:
• Static Routing: In static routing, the routing information is fed into
the routing tables manually. It does not only become a time-taking
task but gets prone to errors as well. The manual updating is also
required in case of statically configured routers when change in the
topology of the network or in the layout takes place. Thus static
routing is feasible for tinniest environments with minimum of one or
two routers.
M.RAJALAKSHMI 102
 Brouters

• Brouters are the combination of both the bridge and routers. They
take up the functionality of the both networking devices serving as
a bridge when forwarding data between networks, and serving as
a router when routing data to individual systems. Brouter functions
as a filter that allows some data into the local network and redirects
unknown data to the other network.
• Brouters are rare and their functionality is embedded into the
routers functioned to act as bridge as well.
PROBLEMS –SUBNETTING NUMERALS