Lecture 1

√
• Examples of rings: Z, Z[ 2], Z[x], Mn (R), fix a topological space X and set C(X) =
{f : X → R | f is continuous}, Z[x1 , . . . , xn ], Z[xi : i ∈ N], Zn . If R is any ring, then
R[x] is a ring.
• Definition
P of ideals: subring which is closed under “scalar multiplication”.
• nZ, { ni=0 ai xi ∈ Z[x] : a0 = 0; n ∈ Z≥0 } = “ideal generated by” {x}.P
• I an ideal in a ring R. A set G is said to be a generating set for I if I = { f inite rα aα : rα ∈
R, aα ∈ G}.PWe write I = (G) or ⟨G⟩. If G = {f1 , . . . , fn }, we write I = (f1 , . . . , fn ).
• Exercise: { ni=0 ai xi ∈ Z[x] : a0 is even} = (2, x). Does there exist f (x) ∈ Z[x] such
that I = (f (x))?
• Given two ideals I, J in R, we define
– I + J = {a + b : a ∈ I, b ∈ J};
– I ∩ J =P{a ∈ R : a ∈ I&a ∈ J};
– IJ = { f inite ai bi : ai ∈ I, bi ∈ J};
– I : J = {a ∈ R : aJ ⊂ I. Here aJ := (a)J.
Exercise: Prove that given ideals I and J, all the above sets are ideals.
• Observe that if J ⊆ I, then I : J = R.
• Let R be a ring and A = R[x]. Prove that (x2 ) : (x) = (x).
• Exercise: In the ring Z[x], determine (x) : (x, 2).

Lecture 2
• If I is an ideal, then x ∼ y ⇔ x − y ∈ I is an equivalence relation. The set of all
equivalence classes is denoted by R/I. It has a ring structure, with the addition and
multiplication induced by the ring.
• Given any ideal I in a ring R, there is a natural quotient map π : R → R/I.
• A map φ : R → R′ between rings is a ring homomorphism if
(a) φ(x + y) = φ(x) + φ(y);
(b) φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y).
• The natural map π is a ring homomorphism.
• (Universal property) Let φ : R → R′ be a ring homomorphism. Let I ⊂ R be an
ideal. If I ⊆ ker(φ), then there is a unique homomorphism φ̄ : R/I → R′ such that
φ̄ ◦ π = φ.
• (1st isomorphism theorem): If φ : R → R′ is a ring homomorphism, then img φ ∼ =
R/I.
• If J ⊆ I are ideals in R, then I/J is an ideal in R/J and (R/J)/(I/J) ∼ = R/I.

Lecture 3
• Definition of prime and maximal ideal.
• (0) ⊂ Z is a prime ideal. (2) ⊂ Z is a maximal ideal.
• In a PID, every non-zero prime ideal is a maximal ideal.
• In a ring R,
– an ideal I is a prime ideal if and only if R/I is an integral domain;
– an ideal I is a maximal ideal if and only if R/I is a field.
• As a consequence, we can derive:
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 – (0) is a prime ideal in R if and only if R is an integral domain;
– (0) is a maximal ideal in R if and only if R is a field.
• Exercises: If a ∈ R, then R[x]/(a, x) ∼ = R/(a). Conclude that if p ∈ Z is a prime
number, then (p, x) ⊂ Z[x] is a maximal ideal.
• Exercise: If I ⊂ R is an ideal, then R[x]/I[x] ∼= (R/I)[x].
• A commutative ring containing identity has a maximal ideal.
• The proof is using Zorn’s lemma applied on Σ = {I ⊂ R : I is a proper ideal of R}.
It can be observed that this is a poset. If {Iλ }λ∈Λ is a chain in Σ, then its union is
an upper bound for this chain in Σ. By Zorn’s lemma, Σ has a maximal element.
Observe that this maximal element is a maximal ideal.

Lectre 4
• We have the following consequences:
– If I is a proper ideal of R, then there exists a maximal ideal of R containing I.
– If x ∈ R is a nonunit element, then there exists a maximal ideal of R containing
x.
• Spec(R) := {p ⊂ R : p is a prime ideal}.
• Spm(R) := {m ⊂ R : p is a maximal ideal}.
• For an ideal I, let V (I) := {p ∈ Spec(R) : I ⊆ p}.
• Define a topology on Spec(R) by declaring a subset X to be closed if and only if
there exists an ideal I ⊆ R such that V (I) = X.
• V (R) = ∅ and V ((0)) = Spec(R). Therefore, ∅ and Spec(R) are closed.
• If I1 ∩ I2 ⊆ p, then I1 ⊆ p or I2 ⊆ p.
• It follows from the previous observation that V (I1 ∩ I2 ) ⊆ V (I1 ) ∩ V (I2 ).
• Since I1 ∩ I2 ⊂ Ii for i = 1, 2, V (I1 ∩ I2 ) = V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ). Therefore, finite union of
closed sets is closed. P
• If {Xλ }λ∈Λ ⊂ Spec(R), then is it true that V ( λ∈Λ Iλ ) = ∩λ∈Λ V (Iλ )?

Lecture 5
• Remark: If A is a subset of a ring R, then V (A) = V (I(A)), where I(A) denotes the
ideal generated by A.
• Observe that Iλ ⊂ ∪λ Iλ so that ∩λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) = V (∪λ Iλ ). Hence arbitrary intersection
of closed set is closed. Therefore, this defines a topology on Spec(R), called the
Zariski topology.
• If R is a PID, then the closed sets in the Zariski toplogy on Spec(R) is given by
collection of finite subsets not containing the prime ideal (0). The only closed set
containing (0) is Spec(R).
• Exercise: Let P be a prime ideal in Z[x]. Then P is one of the following:
(i) P = (0)
(ii) P = (f (x)), where f (x) is an irreducible element in Z[x].
(ii) P = (p, f (x)), where p is a prime
Pinteger and f (x) is irreducible modulo p.
∞ n
• Let k be a field and R = k[[x]] := { n=0 an x : an ∈ k}, the ring of formal power
series with the usual addition and multiplication.
• Question: What are the units in this ring?
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 Lecture 6
P∞
• n=0 an xn is a unitP in R = k[[x]] if and only if a0 ̸= 0.
• Non-units in R = { ∞ n=1 an x
n
: an ∈ k} = {xf (x) : f (x) ∈ R} = (x). Therefore,
the set of all non-units for an ideal, in fact a maximal ideal.
• Observe that if in a ring, the set of all non-units form an ideal, then it must be a
maximal ideal and that ideal must be the unique maximal ideal of the ring.
• Definition: A ring containing a unique maximal ideal is called a local ring.
• Example: k[[x]] is a local ring.
• Exercise: k[[x, y]] is a local ring.
• Theorem: For a ring R, the following are equivalent:
(i) R is a local ring with unique maximal ideal m.
(ii) The set of all non-units form an ideal, and is equal to m.
(iii) m is a maximal ideal and 1 + x is a unit for all x ∈ m.
• Z/nZ is a local ring if and only if n = pr for some prime p and r ≥ 1.
• Fix a prime p ∈ Z. Define Z(p) := { m n
: p does not divide n} ⊂ Q.
• Z(p) is a subring of Q.
• What are the units of Z(p) ?

Lecture 7
• Observe that m n
n
∈ Z(p) is a unit in Z(p) if and only if m ∈ Z(p) if and only if p ∤ m.
• Let I = { n : p divides m}. Then n is a unit if and only if m
m m
n
∈
/ I. In other words,
m m
n
∈ I if and only if n is a non-unit.
• Observe that I = pZ(p) , hence an ideal. Therefore, the set of all non-units form an
ideal. Hence Z(p) is a local ring with unique maximal ideal pZ(p) .
• A subset S of R is a multiplicative set if
– 0∈ / S, 1 ∈ S and
– if s, t ∈ S, then st ∈ S.
• Examples:
– For a non-nilpotent element f ∈ R, {1, f, f 2 , ...} is a multiplicative set.
– Z \ {0} ⊂ Z.
– {m : p ∤ m} ⊂ Z.
• Localization: If S is a multiplicative set in R, then define a relation on R × S by
(x, s) ∼ (y, t) ⇔ ∃ u ∈ S such that u(xt − ys) = 0.
• This is an equivalence relation.
• R × S/ ∼, the collection of all equivalence classes, is called the localization of R
with respect to S, usually denoted by RS or S −1 R. The equivalence class of (x, s) is
written as xs .
• On RS define, xs + yt = xt+ys
st
. Then this is well-defined, i.e., the sum does not depend
on the representative chosen for the equivalence classes of the elements, i.e.,
x x′ y y′ xt + ys x′ t′ + y ′ t′
if = ′ and = ′ , then = .
s s t t st s′ t′
Lecture 8
xy xy
• Define a multiplication in RS by setting s t
:= st
. Then this is also well-defined.
3
• With respect to the addition and multiplication defined above, RS is a commutative
ring with identity 11 .
• Observe that if R is a rin, S is a multiplicative set and I ⊂ R is an ideal, then
IRS = { xs : x ∈ I, s ∈ S} is an ideal in RS .
• Examples of localization:
– R = Z, fix a prime p and set S = {n : p ∤ n} = Z \ pZ. Then RS = Z(p) .
– R = Z and S = Z \ (0). Then RS = Q.
– Let R be any ring and p ∈ Spec(R). Let S = R \ p. Then S is a multiplicative
set. In this case, RS is usually denoted by Rp , called R localized at p.
• xs ∈ Rp is a non-unit if and only if x ∈ p. Therefore, the set of all non-units = pRp ,
which is an ideal. Therefore Rp is a local ring with pRp as the unique maximal ideal.
• There is a natural map τ : R → RS , τ (x) = x1 . This is a ring homomorphism.
• This need not necessarily be injective always. For example if you take S = {1, 3, 9} ⊂
Z12 , then τ (4) = 0, but 4 ̸= 0 ∈ Z12 .
• If J is an ideal of RS and I = τ −1 (J), then J = IRS . Hence if I is an ideal of R,
then IRS is an ideal in RS . Moreover, if J is an ideal of RS , then there exists an
ideal I ⊂ R such that J = IRS .
• Let R = Z and S = {1, 2, 22 , 23 , . . .}. If 13 and 51 are in an ideal I ⊂ RS , then I = RS .
Hence the set of all non-units in RS is not an ideal. Therefore, RS is not a local ring.
• Exercise: Find at least two distinct ideals of RS .

Lecture 9
• If p is an odd prime in Z, then pZS is a maximal ideal in ZS , where S = {1, 2, 22 , . . .}.
For, if p is an odd prime and as ∈ / pZS , p does not divide a and hence there exists
x, y ∈ Z such that px + ay = 1. Therefore, p1 xs + as + y1 = 1s which is a unit. Hence
pZS + ⟨ as ⟩ = ZS . Therefore pZS is a maximal ideal.
• Exercise: For an ideal I ⊂ R, I is a maximal ideal if and only if for any x ∈ R \ I,
I + ⟨x⟩ = R.
• Warning: The natural map τ : R → RS given by τ (x) = x1 need not necessarily be
injective. For example, take R = Z12 and S = {1, 3, 9}.
• ker τ = {x ∈ R : ∃ s ∈ S such that sx = 0}.
• If S contains no zero-divisors, then τ is injective.
−1
• If S ⊂ R× , then τ is bijective. For, if xs ∈ RS , then s 1 x = xs . Therefore τ (s−1 x) = xs
which proves the surjectivity.
• For an ideal I ⊂ R, IRS = RS if and only if I ∩ S ̸= ∅.
• If p ∈ Spec(R) with p ∩ S = ∅, then pRS ∈ Spec(RS ): For, if xs , yt ∈ RS are such
that xyst
∈ pRS , then there exists a ∈ p and u ∈ S such that xy st
= ua . Hence
′ ′ ′
u (xyu − ast) = 0 for some u ∈ S. Thus u uxy ∈ p and hence xy ∈ p. Since p is a
prime ideal, x ∈ p or y ∈ p. Therefore xs ∈ pRS or yt ∈ pRS .
• If P ∈ Spec(RS ), then p = τ −1 (P ) ∈ Spec(R). Moreover, p ∩ S = ∅ and pRS = P .
Therefore,

Spec(RS ) = {pRS : p ∈ Spec(R) and p ∩ S = ∅} .

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 Lecture 10
• (Universal Property): Let R, R′ be rings and S ⊂ R a multiplicative set. Let φ :
R → R′ be a ring homomorphism such that every element of S is mapped to a unit
in R′ . Then there exists a unique homomorphism φ′ : RS → R′ such that φ′ ◦ τ = φ.
Moreover, if R′ satisfies this universal property, then φ′ is an isomorphism.
• If S = {1, f, f 2 , . . .} ⊂ R, then RS ∼
= R[T ]/(1 − f T ).
Lecture 11
• If A = {fi : i ∈ Λ} ⊂ R and S = { f inite fiαi : i ∈ Λ, αi ∈ Z≥0 }. Then
Q

RS ∼= R[Ti : i ∈ Λ]/(1 − fi Ti : i ∈ Λ) =: A. This can be proved using the universal

property of the localization and the universal property of the quotients. Using the
natural maps τ : R → RS and π : R → A, prove that there exists φ : RS → A such
that π ◦ τ = φ. Then using the universal property of the quotients, prove that there
is a map from ψ : A → RS such that τ = ψ ◦ π. Now show that these two maps are
inverses of each other.
• Let p ∈ Spec(R) and f ∈ R \ p. Then pRf ∈ Spec(Rf ). Moreover, f ∈ Rp and
f ∈ Rf are units. Therefore Rp ∼ = (Rp )f ∼
= (Rf )pRf .
R Rf

∼
Rp (Rp )f
• Definition: For a ring R, the Jacobson radical of R is j(R) := ∩m∈Spm(R) m.
• Example: j(Z12 ) = {0, 6}.
• j(Z) = (0).
n
• Let k be a field. Then j(k[x1 , . . . , xn ]) = (0). For, if a = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ k , where k
denotes the algebraic closure of k, then one can define a map φa : k[x1 , . . . , xn ] → k
by φa (f (x1 , . . . , xn )) = f (a1 , . . . , an ). Then this is a ring homomorphism such that
the image is a field (in fact, im(φa ) = k(a1 , . . . , an ) = k[a1 , . . . , an ]). Therefore
ma = ker φa is a maximal ideal. If p(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ j(k[x1 , . . . , xn ]), then p(x) ∈ ma
n
for every a ∈ k . We claim that p(x) = 0. We prove this by induction on n. If
n = 1, then a ∈ k is a zero of p(x) for all a which implies p(x) = 0. Write p(x) =
Pr i ′ n−1
i=0 gi (x1 , . . . , xn−1 )xn . Fix a = (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) ∈ k . Then p(a1 , . . . , an−1 , xn ) has
infinitely many zeroes. Therefore gi (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) = 0 for all i = 0, . . . , r. But this is
n−1
true for each (a1 , . . . , an−1 ) ∈ k . Hence by induction gi (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) = 0 for all
i = 0, . . . , r. Hence p(x) = 0.
Lecture 12
• We would like understand the ideal j(R). If a ∈ m for all m ∈ Spm(R), then
1 − ab ∈/ m for all b ∈ R and for all m ∈ Spm(R), i.e., 1 − ab is a unit for all b ∈ R.
Conversely, if a ∈/ m for some m, then m + (a) = R ⇒ x + ab = 1 for some x ∈ m
and b ∈ R. Hence 1 − ab = x ∈ m so that it is not a unit. Therefore, a ∈ j(R) if and
only if 1 − ab is a unit for all b ∈ R.
• Definition: For a ring R, the radical of R, is rad(R) := ∩p∈Spec(R) p.
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• Let a ∈ rad(R). Let S = {1, a, a2 , . . .}. Then S ∩ p ̸= ∅ for all p ∈ Spec(R).
Therefore, RS does not have any prime ideal, which is impossible. Hence S cannot
be a multiplicative set, i.e., 0 ∈ S, i.e., an = 0 for some n ≥ 1. Conversely, if a is
nilpotent, then an = 0 ∈ p for all p ∈ Spec(R). Hence a ∈ p for all p ∈ Spec(R), i.e.,
a ∈ rad(R). Hence rad(R) = {a ∈ R : an = 0 for some n ∈ N}.
• Definition: For an ideal I ⊂ R,
j(I) = ∩m⊃I m
rad(I) = ∩p⊃I p.
• If π : R → R/I is the natural quotient map, then j(I) = π −1 (j(R/I)) and rad(I) =
π −1 (rad(R/I)).
• rad(Z12 ) = 6Z12 .
• I = (x3 y) ⊂ K[x, y]. Then rad(I) = (xy). If p is a prime ideal containing I, then
x3 y ∈ p ⇒ x ∈ p or y ∈ p ⇒ (x) ⊂ p or (y) ⊂ p. Hence rad(I) = (x) ∩ (y) = (xy).