Harmonic

Analysis

Report by
M.Narendra
Introduction:
Harmonic Analysis:
Harmonic analysis is a study that simulates the behaviour of
electrical power systems with nonlinear loads, like power
electronics devices, that generate harmonic currents and
voltages.

These harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental

frequency and can distort the voltage and current waveforms.

Types of Loads:

Loads in Nature:

1. Resistive
2. Inductive
3. Capacitive

Resistive load: A load that consumes only active power is

called a resistive load. And if you look at the voltage and
current waveforms of such a load, you will find that the voltage
& current are perfectly in phase with each other.

Inductive Load:

A load that consumes only reactive power is called an inductive

load. And if you look at the voltage and current waveforms of
such a load, you’ll find that the voltage & current are out of
phase with each other by 90 degrees.

Capacitive load:

Capacitive load is similar to that of an inductive load. In

capacitive loads, also, current & voltage are out of phase with
each other. The only difference is that, in a capacitive load
current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. Whereas, in inductive
load current lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees.

Reactive Power Sources:

Dynamic Sources

 Synchronous generators
 Synchronous condensers
 Solid state devices such as
FACT devices (STATCOM, SVC)

 Shunt capacitors
 Filter banks
  Underground cables

 Transmission lines, when lightly loaded

Reactive Power Sinks:

 Induction motors (pumps,

fans)

 induction loads (Arc furnace,

heaters)

 Induction generators

 Synchronous machines (under excited)

 Transmission lines are heavily loaded

 Transformers

 Shunt reactors
Effects of Reactive Power:

Increase in losses
Increase in Power
Increase in current
Occupy the equipment loading
Uneconomic Operation of the Power System
Reduce plant life
No useful work

Power Factor:

Power Factor (PF) is a measure of how effectively electrical

power is being used in an AC (Alternating Current) system. It is
defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power:
 Type of Symb
Unit Description
Power ol
Actual power used to do useful work (like
Real Power P kW
running a motor or lighting a bulb).
Apparent Total power supplied, combining both real and
S kVA
Power reactive power.
Reactive kVA Power stored and released by
Q
Power R inductors/capacitors, not used for useful work.

1.0 (or 100%) – Perfect power factor (all power is used

usefully).

Less than 1.0 – Indicates presence of reactive power; not all

power is doing useful work.

Lagging – Caused by inductive loads (motors, transformers).

Leading – Caused by capacitive loads (capacitor banks).

⚠️Effects of Power Factor (Especially Low Power Factor)

Power factor has a direct impact on the efficiency, capacity,

and cost of an electrical system. Here are the key effects:

1. Increased Power Losses

 Low power factor leads to higher current flow in the

system.
 Higher current = more I²R losses (heat) in cables,
transformers, and other equipment.
More losses → Reduced efficiency and higher energy bills.

2. Overloading of Equipment

 Since apparent power (kVA) increases with low power

factor, transformers, generators, and cables must
handle more current than needed for actual work.
 This causes premature aging or even overheating.

3. Poor Voltage Regulation

 High current causes voltage drops in the system.

 Result: Unstable voltages at load ends, which can
damage sensitive devices.

4. Reduced System Capacity

 Equipment is rated in kVA, but low PF means more kVA is

needed for the same kW.
 System reaches its capacity limit faster, reducing the
ability to add new loads.

5. Penalties by Utility Companies

 Utilities often impose penalties or additional charges for

low power factor (typically below 0.9 or 0.95).
  This increases operational costs for commercial and
industrial users

6. Need for Larger Equipment

 Due to increased current, you need larger conductors,

transformers, circuit breakers, and other components.
 This increases the initial capital cost.

Impact of Poor Power Factor:

 Poor voltage regulation

 Losses
 Heating
 Voltage drops
  Poor system performance
 Higher electricity bills

Effects of Low Power Factor:

 Reduce plant life

 Decrease energy efficiency

 Increase power losses

 Increased energy costs

 Voltage drops

 Overloading of equipment

Equipment used to improve power factor:

1. Fixed Capacitor & Switching Capacitor

Fixed capacitors have a constant capacitance value, whereas

switched capacitors (also known as automatic or switched
capacitor banks) have their capacitance adjusted by
switching capacitors in and out of a circuit. Fixed capacitors
are used for basic power factor correction and voltage
regulation, while switched capacitors are used for dynamic
power factor correction in response to changing load
conditions.
2. Synchronous Condenser:

Synchronous condensers, which are essentially synchronous

motors running without a mechanical load, can improve power
factor by injecting leading reactive power into the
system. When over-excited, a synchronous motor draws a
leading current, which can offset the lagging reactive power
drawn by inductive loads like motors and transformers. This
leads to the current effectively neutralizing the lagging current,

bringing the overall power factor closer to unity.

3.SVC & STATCOM:

SVC (Static VAR Compensator) and STATCOM (Static

Synchronous Compensator) are both FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission System) devices used for reactive power
compensation in power systems. They improve voltage
stability, power quality, and system damping by injecting or
absorbing reactive power. While both devices serve similar
purposes, they differ in their operating principles and
characteristics.

Benefits of power factor correction:

Power factor correction (PFC) offers numerous advantages,

primarily improving energy efficiency and reducing costs. By
optimizing the power factor, PFC minimizes reactive power,
leading to lower energy consumption, reduced electricity bills,
and potential avoidance of utility penalties. Additionally, PFC
enhances system capacity, improves voltage stability, and
extends the lifespan of electrical equipment.
Why is Power Quality
important?

Power quality is
important because it directly
affects the reliability,
efficiency, and lifespan of
electrical equipment and
systems. Poor power quality can
cause equipment failures, data
loss, overheating, increased maintenance costs, and energy
waste.

Power quality refers to the characteristics of the

electrical power supplied to homes and businesses, which
affect the performance and longevity of electrical devices.
Ensuring high power quality can prevent disruptions, reduce
energy costs, and protect sensitive equipment from damage.

Imagine an image here that illustrates various power quality

issues, such as voltage sags, harmonics, and electrical
interference, alongside their impacts on devices and systems.
Causes of poor power quality:

What are harmonics?

Harmonics refer to the multiples of the fundamental

frequency present in a complex waveform.

In essence, they are additional frequencies that occur at

integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

When a wave deviates from its pure sinusoidal form,

harmonics emerge, contributing to its unique timbre and
character. Unnecessary current flow inside the equipment
is called harmonics.

ORDER OF HARMONICS:

• For instance, if the

fundamental frequency is 50
Hz, the second harmonic
 would be 100 Hz, the third harmonic would be 150 Hz, and
so forth.

• Each harmonic contributes to the overall shape and

character of the waveform, adding complexity and
richness to the sound or signal.

Effects of the Harmonics:

1. Increased Heating in Conductors and Equipment:

Harmonic currents generate additional heat in conductors,
transformers, and other electrical equipment. This can lead to
overheating and premature aging of the equipment, potentially
causing failures and safety hazards.

2. Voltage Distortion: Harmonic currents can distort the

voltage waveform, leading to voltage distortion. This can affect
the operation of sensitive electronic equipment, cause
malfunctions, and reduce the efficiency of the system.

3. Resonance: In systems with capacitors, harmonics can

create resonance conditions, which can amplify voltages and
currents at specific frequencies. Resonance can lead to
equipment failures and can cause further distortion in voltage
and current waveforms.

4. Equipment Malfunction: Harmonics can cause

malfunctioning and premature failure of electronic equipment
such as computers, servers, and communication devices. They
can disrupt the proper operation of control systems and
sensitive instrumentation.
5.Power Quality Issues: Harmonics can contribute to poor
power quality, affecting the reliability and stability of the
electrical system. This can lead to voltage sags, flicker, and
other disturbances that impact the operation of equipment and
processes.

STANDARDS:

IEEE Std 3002.8-2018: Recommended Practice for

Conducting Harmonic Studies and Analysis of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems
IEEE 519–2022: IEEE Recommended Practice and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems.
IEC Std 61000-4-7: General guide on harmonics and inter-
harmonics measurement and instrumentation for power
supply systems and equipment
IEC Std 61000-4-30: Power quality measurement methods
 IEEE 1547-2018: This standard establishes criteria and
requirements for the interconnection of distributed energy
resources (DER) with electric power systems (EPS) and
associated interfaces.
IEEE 2800–2022: This standard provides uniform technical
minimum requirements for the interconnection, capability,
and performance of inverter-based resources
interconnecting with transmission and sub-transmission
systems.

LINEAR & NONLINEAR LOADS:

1. Linear Load:

A linear load in an electrical system is a type of load that

draws current proportional to the applied voltage. In other
words, the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal and
remain in the same shape — only their amplitude may differ.
This means that the relationship between voltage and current is
linear, and the impedance remains constant regardless of
the voltage applied.

Examples of Linear Loads:

 Incandescent lamps

 Heaters

 Resistors
2. Non-linear Load:

A non-linear load is an electrical load that does not draw

current proportional to the applied voltage. The current
waveform is not sinusoidal even if the voltage is sinusoidal.
These loads distort the current waveform and generate
harmonics in the power system.
 Feature Linear Load Non-Linear Load

Voltage-Current Relation Linear (Ohm’s Law) Non-linear

Current Waveform Sinusoidal Distorted (non-sinusoidal)

Harmonics None or very low Generates harmonics

Types of Harmonics:
2nd order Harmonics:

Fundamental & 2nd order

harmonics Disturbance

New waveform of 2nd order

Vr = Vm 2sinwt
Vy = Vm 2sinw(t-120)
Vb = Vm 2sinw(t-240) or(t+240)

3rd order Harmonics:

Fundamental & 3rd order harmonics

New waveform of the 3rd order harmonic

Vr = Vm 3sinwt
Vy = Vm 3sinw(t-120)
Vb = Vm 3sinw(t-240) or(t+240)
Filters:
In harmonic analysis, filters are essential for reducing or
eliminating harmonics—unwanted high-frequency components
that distort voltage and current waveforms in power systems.

⚙️Types of Filters Used in Harmonic Analysis

1. Passive Filters

 Use passive components: inductors (L), capacitors (C),

and resistors (R)
 Designed to target specific harmonic frequencies
 Common Types:
o Single-tuned filters: Target one harmonic (e.g.,
5th)
o High-pass filters: Block high-frequency harmonics
o Band-pass filters: Trap a range of harmonic
frequencies

2. Active Filters

 Use power electronics to inject counter-harmonic

currents
 Can adapt to changing harmonic profiles in real-time
 Ideal for dynamic loads and complex harmonic problems

3. Hybrid Filters

 Combine both passive and active components

 Offer the cost benefits of passive filters and the dynamic
performance of active filters
Active filters:

• Active filters in harmonics refer to electronic circuits

designed to mitigate harmonic distortion in electrical
systems.

• They employ active components like transistors or

operational amplifiers to dynamically manipulate signals,
suppressing undesirable harmonics and maintaining
desired frequencies.

• Active filters offer precise control and are commonly used

in power systems and audio equipment to enhance signal
quality.

Passive filters:

• Passive filters in harmonics are electrical circuits that

attenuate or eliminate unwanted harmonics from signals
without requiring external power sources.

• Passive filters are simpler and cost-effective solutions for

mitigating harmonics in electrical systems and improving
overall signal quality.

Hybrid filters:

• Hybrid filters in harmonics are a combination of active and

passive filtering techniques to effectively mitigate
harmonic distortion in electrical systems.
 • Hybrid filters are versatile solutions for harmonic
mitigation in various applications.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PASSIVE AND ACTIVE FILTERS:

DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR & TRUE FACTOR:

Displacement power factor:

Displacement power factor (DPF) is a

measure of how effectively AC power is being used by a load,
specifically considering the phase angle difference between the
voltage and current waveforms.
It is defined as the cosine of the angle between the
fundamental voltage and fundamental current of the load.

Displacement Power Factor (DPF)=cos(ϕ)

Where:

 ϕ is the phase angle between the fundamental voltage

and current

 cos(ϕ) measures how much of the current is "in phase"

with the voltage

 DPF = 1 means purely resistive load (ideal case)

📊 Example:

If the current lags voltage by 30°, then:

DPF=cos (30°) =0.866

Distortion factor:
It is defined as the ratio of the fundamental RMS current to the
total RMS current, and it only becomes relevant in nonlinear
loads (like those with rectifiers, VFDs, or switched-mode power
supplies).

The distortion factor can be improved by capacitor banks

(Lagging power factor)/ shunt reactors (Leading power factor).

True factor:
True Factor = Displacement power factor x Distortion factor

IEEE 519 – 2022 STD OVERVIEW:

These addresses only have steady-state limitations.

Transient conditions that exceed these limitations may occur.
This document specifies the quality of power to be supplied at
the point of common coupling. It does not cover the effects of
radio-frequency interference; however, guidance is provided for
wired telephone systems.

PURPOSE:

This standard is intended for guidance in the design of

power systems with nonlinear loads. The limits set are for
steady-state operating conditions. In any case, the limit values
given in this document should not be considered binding in all
cases. Some conservatism is present that may not be
necessary in all cases.

TOTAL DEMAND DISTORTION (TDD):

The ratio of the root-mean-square of the harmonic content,

considering harmonic components up to the 50th order and
specifically excluding inter-harmonics, expressed as a percent
of the maximum demand load current. Harmonic components
of order greater than 50 may be included when necessary.

VERY SHORT TIME HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS:

  Very short time harmonic values are assessed over a 3-
second interval based on an aggregation of 1 consecutive
12 (10) cycle windows for 60 (50) Hz power systems.
 Individual frequency components are aggregated based on
an RMS calculation as shown in Equation ( 1 ), where
represents voltage (V) or current(I), n represents the
harmonic order, and i is a simple counter. The subscript vs
is used to denote "very short In all cases, F represents an
rms value.

SHORT-TIME HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS:

Short-term harmonic values are evaluated over 10 minutes

based on an aggregation of 200 consecutive, very short time
samples for a specific frequency component. These 200 values
are combined using a rms calculation, as shown in Equation (2),
where F represents voltage (V) or current (I), n denotes the
harmonic order, and i is a simple counter. The subscript sh
indicates "short." In all cases, F signifies a rms value.
Voltage Distortion Limits:

Current Distortion Limits:

Current distortion limits for systems nominally rated

120 V through 69 kV :
Current distortion limits for systems nominally rated
above 69 kV through
161 kV:

Decision tree for applying current distortion limits at

PCC :
How to simulate ETAP:

1. Create a file and name it, and follow these steps:

2. Click on the HA study case

->click plot options
-> Check all the device types
->like buses, transformers, cables, capacitors, harmonic filters,
reactors, etc

3. Run Harmonic Load Flow:

Ways to reduce the Harmonics in a system:

In ETAP, running the load flow studies doesn’t affect any
harmonics by the capacitor, instead improving the power factor
of the system

But when it comes to performing Harmonic Analysis at the non-

linear load connected with the capacitor brings harmonics into
the system.
The voltage harmonic distortion level is increased on the
source and load sides.

As the same the current THD level is increased.

 The capacitor has amplified the harmonics.

Purpose Series Reactors:

In harmonic analysis, series reactors serve the crucial purpose

of mitigating the adverse effects of harmonics in power
systems. They are connected in series with capacitors in power
factor correction (PFC) or harmonic filter circuits to prevent
resonance and limit harmonic currents, thus protecting

equipment and ensuring stable operation.

Calculate the Harmonics present in the system:

 The order of the harmonics is varied based on the pulse
converters used in the system. For example…We use the 6-
pulse converter means.

 h = np+/-1

 No of pulse = 6P

 N – Integer from 1 to 50 or whatever its.

(1*6) +1 7

(1*6)-1 5

(2*6) +1 13

(2*6)-1 11

The order of the harmonics is like this, 5,7,11,13,19,23……

Impact of PF in linear and non-linear loads:

Linear loads:

Linear loads

Case-1 Case-2
Without a capacitor bank With a capacitor bank

DPF 0.8377 DPF 0.9419

THD 0 THD 0
DF 1 DF 1
TPF DF*DPF TPF DF*DPF
TPF 0.8377 TPF 0.9419

The conclusion is:

The linear loads present in our system, we are adding the capacitor bank, which will improve
the PF from 0.83 to 0.94

Non-linear loads:
Non-linear loads

Case-1 Case-2
Without a capacitor bank With a capacitor bank

DPF 0.8377 DPF 0.9419

THD 0.4547 THD 1.748
DF 0.910313 DF 0.496567
TPF DF*DPF TPF DF*DPF
TPF 0.76257 TPF 0.467716

The conclusion is

The Non-linear loads present in our system, we are adding the capacitor bank, which will destroy
the PF from 0.76 to 0.46

 By adding the capacitor bank, it will destroy the power

factor.
Modelling of Series Reactor based on the order of the
harmonics:
Modelling of a series reactor based on the order of the harmonics

Formula is Q=V2/XC
Xc=V2/Q

Q 2.47 MVAR
V 11 KV
Xc 48.98785 ohm At 50HZ

Xc at 5th order (250HZ)

At 250Hz, we need to make Xl-Xc equal zero

Xl 9.797571 ohm At 250 HZ

Xl 1.959514 ohm At 50 HZ

Another way to find the XL value at 50Hz

Xl=Xc/n2
1.959514
XL 1.959514 ohm
The series reactance is doing two things,
1. It’s reducing the present harmonics in the system.
2. Series reactance improves the power factor.

Harmonics' presence in the system:

Harmonics are present in our system with all of the sequences
like positive, negative & zero sequence.
Order Sequence
Fundamental:
1 Positive
Vr = Vm Sin Wt 2 Negative
3 Zero
Vy = Vm Sin W(t-120) 4 Positive
5 Negative
6 Zero
Vb =Vm Sin W(t-240) or (t+120) 7 Positive
8 Negative
2nd order: 9 Zero
10 Positive
Vr = Vm Sin 2Wt 11 Negative
12 Zero
Vy = Vm Sin 2W(t-120) or (-240) 13 Positive
14 Negative
15 Zero
Vb =Vm Sin 2W(t-240) or (t+120) 16 Positive
17 Negative
3rd order: 18 Zero
19 Positive
Vr = Vm Sin 3Wt 20 Negative
21 Zero
22 Positive
Vy = Vm Sin 3W(t-120) = Vm Sin 3Wt
23 Negative
24 Zero
Vb =Vm Sin 3W(t-240) = Vm Sin 3Wt 25 Positive
26 Negative
27 Zero
28 Positive
29 Negative
30 Zero
31 Positive
32 Negative
33 Zero
34 Positive
35 Negative
36 Zero

Impact of different short circuit ratings on harmonics:

 Consider three different short circuit ratings like 40KA,
25KA & 2KA
Compared to the last three simulations,

 40KA short circuit is showing the Voltage harmonic rating is

9.94%,14.83%, and 5.23%.

 25KA short circuit is showing the Voltage harmonic rating is

10.62%,15.82%, and 5.46%.

 2KA short circuit is showing the Voltage harmonic rating is

32.11%,94.5%,10.56%.

That’s the reason why we are performing the minimum short

circuit while doing the harmonic analysis .
Variation of 6-pulse and 12-pulse usage in harmonics:

 In 6-pulse converters, it has more voltage and current

harmonics.

 For this simulation, we have used 6 pulse drives means we

have used the filters.

 The second point is that we spend more money and use

the 12 pulse drives means we don’t need to use the filters
to eliminate harmonics.
  In a 12-pulse converter it has fewer voltage and
current harmonics.

Modelling of VFD:

VFD modelling

Motor power 3000 kw

Motor eff 0.943
pf 0.9294
Input power 3181.336 kw

apparent power 3423 KVA

Reactive power flow Q sqrt(S2-P2)
Q 1263.34 Kvar

Preq 3200
Qreq 1265

S 3440.963
Input details:

 We can't directly model the VFD input details. The OEM

have the actual values of the VFD inputs.

Output details:

 Depending on the load, we modelled the VFD.

Harmonic Filters:
Harmonic filters are devices used to mitigate harmonic
distortion in electrical power systems. They work by providing a
low impedance path for harmonic currents, preventing them
from flowing back into the power source and causing issues like
equipment damage, voltage fluctuations, and reduced
efficiency.
Before and after filter design:
Benefits of using Harmonic Filter:
  Harmonic filtering can enhance equipment performance
and lower energy costs by removing unwanted harmonics
in electrical systems caused by non-linear loads.
 To improve power quality issues, optimise power usage,
reduce power costs and increase safety and compliance,
outcomes critical to energy-intensive sectors such as
mining, industrial, commercial and power utilities.

Measurement of Harmonics in real-time industries:

The device in the image is a Fluke 1770 Series Three-Phase

Power Quality Analyser, and its purpose concerning harmonic
analysis is to measure, analyse, and troubleshoot harmonics in
electrical systems.