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Assignment PDF 1

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1, DATA COMMUNICATIONS Data communication is the process of transferring di o1 Ts ati d Ss ferring data from one point to another using a communication system. It involves several essential components and mechanisms to ensure the accurate and timely delivery of data. 1.1. Components ‘A data communication system includes the following components: ‘The performance of a data communical accuracy, timeliness, and 1. Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Figure 1.1: A data communications system has five components ext, images, audio). ‘The data or information being communicated (e. Message: message, such as a computer or smartphone. Sender: The device that sends the Receiver: The device that receives the message, like ant physical path through which the data is trans other computer or a printer. Transmission Medium: The mitted, like cables or radio waves. verns the communication between devices to ensure proper Protocol: A set of mules that go data exchange. ion system relies on four key characteristics: delivery, that data reaches the correct destination. Only the ensure ceive the data. Delivery: The system must device or a user—should re« intended recipient—whether a ‘Accuracy; Data must be transmitted without errors: If data is altered during transmission ecomes unusable. promptly. Delayed data, ission, and not corrected, it b st be delivered their value. For real-time transm! ficant delays. especially in applications like ‘Timeliness: Data mus data must be delivered in the video and audio, lose same sequence and without signi Dept of CSE, DBIT 2.2, Physical Structures Networks can be categorized by their connection types and topologies: 1, Type of Connection: 2 Point-to-Point: A direct link between two devices, providing the fll capacity of the link for communication (eg. remote control t0 TV). ‘2 Multipoint (Multidrop): Multiple devices share a single link, either spatially (Gimmultaneous use) oF temporally (taking turns). Sisal Figure 1.3 Types of conection: pint opin nd mpi 2. Physical Topology: Referstohow devices ae physically arranged ina network. Four main topologies include: 2 Mesh Topology: + Every device is connected to every other device, requiting m(0~1)/2 links forn devices. + Node I must be connected to n~ I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n ~ | nodes, and finally node n must be connected ton — 1 nodes. We need n(n = 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows communi in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the numberof links by 2 In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n ~ 1) / 2 duplex-mode links. ‘+ Advantages: Dedicated links, fault isolation, robust, secure. + Disadvantages: Expensive, complex installation, excessive cabling. ‘+ Example: Telephone networks between regional offices. Dr. Rajshethar M Pat Dept of CSE, DBIT 4 ‘ols. Figure. ily connected mesh opolgy (ve devin) © Star Topology: + Bach device is connected toa central hub, which manages communication. + Advantages: Easy installation and faul isolation; if lnk fails, only that, device is affected, + Disadvantages: Entire system fails if the hub goes down, ‘Common in local area networks (LANS). Hub ‘igure 1.5: star topology connecting four stations © Bus Topology: + All devices are connected to a single backbone cable. ‘Advantages: Easy installation, less cabling than mesh Disadvantages: Difficult to add devices, faults in the backbone disrupt the entire network. + Example: Early Ethemet LANs. Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Dept of CSE, DBIT Gu Bone Tap Tap Drop line Tap Cable end Cable end Figure 1.6: Abus topology connecting three stations © Ring Topology: + Devices are connected in a loop, with signals traveling in one direction through repeaters. + Advantages: Easy to install, simple fault detetion, Disadvantages: A break inthe ring can disable the entire network, though (dual rings or switches can mitigate this. + Example: IBM’s Token Ring LANs. Figure 1.7: Aring topology connecting six stations 1.3. Data Flow Data flow refers to the manner in which data is transmitted between two devices. It can happen in three modes: 1. Simplex: Data flows in one direction only, like a keyboard sending data to a computer (one-way communication). 2. Half-Duplex: Both devices can send and receive data, but not at the same time. For example, a walkie-talkie allows communication in both directions, but one at a time. 3. Full-Duplex: Both devices can transmit and receive data simultaneously, like in a phone conversation where both parties can speak and listen at the same time. Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Dept of CSE, DBIT 2 Direction of data Mainframe a. Simplex Monitor Direction of data atime 1 Direction of data at time 2 bb Half-duplex 4 Direction of data all 4 . Full-duplex Figure 1.2: Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex) $, TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE. ‘TCPAPis the protocol suite widely used for communication on the Internet today. Itis a collection of protocols organized into different layers, where each layer handles specifi tasks, making it ‘easier to manage complex communication processes, TCP/IP sa hierarchical protocol, mesning ‘at each higher-level protocol depends on the services provided by one oF more lower-level protocols. This layered structure ensures efficient and organized communication across networks. However, today, it is more commonly represented as a fivelayer model. These layers work together to ensure smooth data transmission over the network. 5.1. Layered Architecture ‘To understand how the layers inthe TCPAP protocol suite work during communication between {wo hosts e's considera small network composed of three local area networks (LANs), each connected by a link-layer switch. These LANS are also interconnected through a router. Figure 1.20 illustrates this setup. (cae) Ape ors oo f ones = Ori! ge Lape ne ek Figure 1.19: Layersin he TCPAP protocol suite In this scenario, imagine that Host A (the source) communicates with Host B (the dest ‘The communication process involves five device Source Host (Computer A) Link layer switch in LAN I Router Link-layer switch in LAN 2 Destination Host (Computer B) Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil, Dept of CSE, DBIT 7 Fgwe 1.20; Communication tough minerst ‘Each of these devices operates at diferent layers ofthe TCPAP protocol stack, depending on its role inthe network: 1. Hosts (Source and Destination) Both Host A and Host B are involved in all five layers of the TCP/IP model: + Application Layer: The source host (Host A) creates a message at the application layer and sends it down through the stack. + Transport Layer: The message is passed to the transport layer, which ensures reliable delivery. + Network Layer: At the network layer, the message is encapsulated into packets for transmission across the network. + Data Link Layer: The packets are then prepared for transmission over the physical network in the data-link layer. + Physical Layer: Finally, the message is sent through the physical medium (wires, cables, etc.) to reach the destination host. At the destination, Host B receives the message at the physical layer and passes it up through the layers until it reaches the application layer for processing. 2. Router A router plays a different role and operates at three layers of the TCP/IP model: Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Dept of CSE, DBIT 18 + Network Layer: The router’s primary function is routing packets across networks. It forwards packets based on their destination IP address. + Data Link Layer & Physical Layer: A router is connected to multiple links, and each link may use a different data-link and physical-layer protocol. For instance, if a packet arrives from LAN 1 (Link 1) using one set of protocols, the router must handle it and forward it to LAN 2 (Link 2) using another set of protocols. Importantly, the router does not deal with the transport or application layers, as its role is solely to move packets between networks. 3. Link-Layer Switch Allink-layer switch operates only at the data-link and physical layers: + Data Link Layer: The switch processes the data frames and ensures they are forwarded to the correct device within the same LAN. + Physical Layer: The switch forwards the data through the physical medium, Unlike routers, link-layer switches do not need to handle different sets of protocols for different Jinks. They operate within a single LAN, using a single protocol set for the data-link and physical layers. 1.2. Data Representation Data can be represented in various forms to suit the type of communication. Common types of data representation include: Text: Represented as a sequence of bits using encoding systems like ASCII or Unicode. Numbers: Represented directly in binary form, which allows for efficient computation and transmission. Images: Represented as a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is assigned a bit pattern based on the image's color or intensity. Color images often use RGB (Red, Green, Blue) or YCM (Yellow, Cyan, Magenta) encoding. Audio: Audio data is captured as a continuous signal, which can be sampled and digitized for transmission, Video: A sequence of images or frames is used to convey motion, with each frame represented as individual bit patterns. 5.4, Encapsulation and Decapsulation Encapsulation and decapsulation are key concepts in protocol layering within the Internet. These processes occur at both the source and destination hosts, 5 well as at intermediary devices like routers. L Encapsulation at the Source Host tthe source host, the encapsulation process involves the following steps: Application Layer: The data generated by the application is called a message, This message typically doesn't have a header or trailer, but if it does, the whole unit is still referred to as a message. This message is passed to the transport layer. ‘Transport Layer: The transport layer treats the message as a payload. It adds a transport layer header, which includes details like the source and destination application program identifiers and information necessary for tasks such as flow control, error control, or Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Deptof CSE, DBIT 4 congestion control. The resulting packet is known asa segment (in TCP) or user datagram (in UDP). This transport layer packet is then passed to the network layer, Network Layer: At this layer, the transport layer packet is treated as the payload. A network layer header is added, which contains the source and destination IP addresses, as well as additional information for error checking and fragmentation. The final packet is referred to as a datagram, which is then passed to the data-link layer. Data-Link Layer: The network layer packet is encapsulated in a data-link layer frame, A header is added here, which includes the addresses of the sending host and the next hop (eg., @ router). The frame is then passed to the physical layer for transmission over the network (Chien ranpine | eaapata | wad] Gictratcet ne b= eatatdurta inet Oem) sector Qe Figure 1.23: EnepsulationDecapslaton Il, Encapsulation and Decapsulation at the Router Routers perform both encapsulation and decapsulation, as they are connected to multiple network links. 1 Here's how this works: Decapsulation at Data-Link Layer: When the router receives a frame, the data-link layer extracts the datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer. Network Layer Processing: The routers network layer examines the source and destination addresses within the datagram header. Using its forwarding table, the router Packet Tranamisoa: When on host sat pack o anther, was broadest A hs the newer. © Packet Filtering: The intend recipient woul ace the packet, willl oer fost wold dp i ‘© Drawhack: Tis method crested sgnidcan nerwork congestion, a every packet ‘srw tal hota even whe hey wees he intended ecpen Madera LAN Setup: Switched LAN: Today, most LAN ie smart switches handle packs very "> Adress Recognition’ Aswich simeigenchogh o recogni te destination dirs of oc packet o Seketive Packet Forwarding: Instead of broadcasting packsst all oss, the Sich seni be pct dey tote dentate hat Mente "Reduce Traffic: Siocepaches are only seat the intended recipe veal ctor as significant rece + Simultaneous Communicadon: More than ove pir of ost can commana simkancnny a longs they ave ferent source and ‘Eston abies. Tes prover twa een. LAN Capacity: 7 Flext: The ter LAN" does not speify any contin on he mune of bets. A LAN can accommodate a wide ange chor nurs, depending onthe networks si Dr. Rasher MPa Deptof CSE, DBIT 1 132. Wide Area Network (WAN) AWAN coven a large peogrpbical wen, sich cy, country or even globally, connects ‘mule LANS (Charmer: 2 fen managed by maliple ents (eg ISPs, ovement). eee eet Croco S Comming mean, Toe pA uh gue 19: Aptiogia WAN 1 einen uit WAN i a astwod tha comets «wo communication devises AO A Pat Pi Aha or wiles ins, Titype of eet allows atari tearssin mt pit, ecg vd and pate cmamacaion Unk. Used Ey eee ink branch ofces or remote locations ‘Transmisson Medi «Cable: Examples incl ier optic coil or wiser ables 1 Sie tes inks like microwave or slit eonnetions Advantages | eticaed Line; ine only two devices shar the ink; heres minimal congestion an consist bandwidth 1 dovces educes the sk of wnauthoied eee 4 Seeuriy Ltd exposure to exer Acwitehed WAl ‘Asolched Wide Area Nerwork: (WAN) is a ntwork infrastacta with A sere Wide alike ulna pontao-pin WANS, which ony connect to endPn a er allows for dynamic roviagbetmeen several nodes tough switches. lp endpots that Di Raja Pai Deptof CSE, DBIT A eee Jcation: Switched WANS are fundamental inthe bactnne of modern Role fn Global Commun aa eansfer across vast geographical areas obs communication systems. iia “+A pitched WAN is salable end can conect many endpoints Fears in he network are responsible fr choosing the best ph fo deta otra tenon aed in rge-scale,high-rafc networks like he interne Pe ag iY = eo ge 110 Avid WAN Internetwork. In moder networks, ts uncommon ‘Newark eperatng independent nse connect they for an inernetork, oF mere For example imagine acompany wi offices on th at and west coasts ach fie has 4 LAN ‘es employes cn commaniate win he ofc To allow communication terween employees aann atoms, the company Fase a dedicated WAN conection fom a service provider. This SVAN tana the two LANE, creating an ineretwerk, or private tere. Now, employees from both offices can communicate with each ott find & LAN (Local Ares Network) or WAN (Wide Area ru they aren connected, When 0 oF moe Rework peauanestapar REGaMaEguaenaPcassipattea: Sea pePP EN A heterogeneous network A heterogeneous network is a system that connects various types of devices and network architectures. The term "heterogeneous" signifies diversity in the types of networks, which may Dr. Rajshekhar M Patil Dept of CSE, DBIT 9 include different hardware, operating systems, and communication protocols. When combining WANS and LANs into a heterogeneous network, the WANS provide the backbone for long-distance ‘communication, while the LANs allow for local connectivity. ointto-point Modem WAN Mode ‘Switched WAN Router Point-to-point ‘WAN Router LAN Figura 1.12: A hatarngamanns natin’ mada nf fore WANeand three LAN 2 Gitemng, ‘Switching isthe proces of forwarding data packets in a network from a source to a destination through intermediate devices called switches ‘Types of Switching 1. Cireuit Switching: Tnacircuit-switched network, afixed connection (circuit is always availabe between two devices, like telephones, and it can be activated or deactivated by the nework switch pure | 13:A crcutawiched eter Dr. Rashekhar M Patil Dept of CSE, DBIT 10 Example Figure 1.13, ‘+ The network consists of four telephones on each side, connected toa site, ‘When a cal is made, the switch connects a phone on one side to phone onthe other side, ‘+ Athick line connects the two switches, with enough capacity to support four simultaneous voice calls This line's capacity is shared by all phone pairs ‘Two Scenari {Al phones are in use: Four people on one side ae taking o four people on the other side, ‘using the full capacity of the line Disadvantages: A circuit-switched network is only efficient when operating at full eapacty. If fewer devices are active, the unused capacity leads o inefficiency. The thick line needs four times the capacity of single voice line to prevent al failures when all phones are in use simultaneously. 2. Packet Switching: {In a computer network, communication between devices is carried out in blocks of data called packets, rather than as continuous steams, as seen in phone calls. These packets are independent Units, which makes it possible for network switches to store and forward them later if needed. Example Figure 1.14 A packet-switched network where two sets of four computers are connected across two sites. In this setup. a router queues the packets and sends them when the network is ready Se ~

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