Introduction

Presenting information clearly and effectively is a key skill to get your message or opinion across and,
today, presentation skills are required in almost every field. Whether you are a student, administrator or
executive, if you wish to start up your own business, apply for a grant or stand for an elected position, you
may very well be asked to make a presentation. This can be a very daunting prospect. This chapter is
designed to help. A presentation is a means of communication which can be adapted to various speaking
situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step
preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered. A
presentation concerns getting a message across to the listeners and may often contain a 'persuasive' element,
for example a talk about the positive work of your organization, what you could offer an employer, or why
you should receive additional funding for a project.
BASIC TIPS
Dress smartly: don't let your appearance distract from what you are saying.
Smile. Don't hunch up and shuffle your feet. Have an upright posture. Try to appear confident and
enthusiastic.
Say hello and smile when you greet the audience: your audience will probably look at you and smile
back: an instinctive reaction.
Speak clearly, firmly and confidently as this makes you sound in control. Don't speak too quickly: you
are likely to speed up and raise the pitch of your voice when nervous. Give the audience time to absorb
each point. Don't talk in a monotone the whole time. Lift your head up and address your words to someone
near the back of audience. If you think people at the back can't hear, ask them.
Use silence to emphasize points. Before you make a key point pause: this tells the audience that
something important is coming. It's also the hallmark of a confident speaker as only these are happy with
silences. Nervous speakers tend to gabble on trying to fill every little gap.
Keep within the allotted time for your talk.
Eye contact is crucial to holding the attention of your audience. Look at everyone in the audience
from time to time, not just at your notes or at the PowerPoint slides. Try to involve everyone, not just those
directly in front of you.
Walk around a little and gesture with your hands. Bad presenters keep their hands on the podium or
in their pockets! Don't stand in one place glued to the spot hiding behind the podium! Good presenters will
walk from side to side and look at different parts of the audience.
You could try to involve your audience by asking them a question.
Don't read out your talk, as this sounds boring and stilted, but refer to brief notes jotted down on small
(postcard sized) pieces of card. Don't look at your notes too much as this suggests insecurity and will
prevent you making eye contact with the audience.
It’s OK to use humour, in moderation, but better to use anecdotes than to rattle off a string of jokes.
Take along a wristwatch to help you keep track of time – the assessor may cut you off as soon as you
have used the time allocated, whether or not you have finished.
 It can be very helpful to practice at home in front of a mirror. You can also record your presentation
and play it back to yourself: don't judge yourself harshly when you replay this - we always notice our bad
points and not the good when hearing or seeing a recording or ourselves! Time how long your talk takes.
Run through the talk a few times with a friend.
It's normal to be a little nervous. This is a good thing as it will make you more energized. Many people
have a fear of speaking in public. Practicing will make sure that you are not too anxious. In your mind,
visualize yourself giving a confident successful performance. Take a few deep slow breaths before your
talk starts and make a conscious effort to speak slowly and clearly. Research by T Gilovich (Cornell
University) found that people who feel embarrassed are convinced their mistakes are much more
noticeable than they really are: we focus on our own behaviour more than other people do and so
overestimate its impact. This is called the spotlight effect. If you make a mistake, don't apologize too much,
just briefly acknowledge the mistake and continue on.
Build variety into the talk and break it up into sections: apparently, the average person has a three-
minute attention span! According to Professor Woodcock the flow of presentation should include the
components mentioned. Any good presentation should have a beginning, middle and an end. Use short
sentences.
Consider:
Who are the audience?
What points do I want to get across?
How much time have I got?
What visual aids are available? Power-point projector? Flip chart? Don't necessarily use these.
Introduction
Welcome the audience.
Say what your presentation will be about: the aims and objectives.
The introduction should catch the attention. Perhaps a provocative statement or a humorous anecdote:
o “Genetically-modified crops could save millions of people from starvation”
o “The first day of my vacation job went with a bang, but it wasn't my fault that the microwave exploded.
The Middle should outline your argument or develop your story
In five minutes you will only have time for two or three main points and allow everything else to
support these. List your main headings and any key phrases you will use.
Don't try to say pack too much content in or you will talk non- stop trying to get all your content and
the audience will switch off with information overload long before the end.
Use graphics or anecdotes to add variety. Conclusion
Briefly summarise your main points.
Answer any questions.
 Thank the audience for listening. Look at the audience again, smile and slow down.
The end should be on a strong or positive note – not tailing away to “..well that's all I've got to say so
thank you very much for listening ladies and gentlemen”. You could try something along these lines:
o “Hang-gliding is brilliant, so try it – you'll believe a man can fly!”
o “The danger is increasing – if we don't all act soon it could be too late!
The above has been neatly summarised as "Tell them what you will tell them
(introduction), tell them (development), and tell them what you told them (conclusion)"
In preparing your talk, first jot down any interesting points you want to include in your talk, put these in a
logical sequence, then try to find an interesting title, and a good introduction and ending.
USING POWERPOINT, OVERHEAD PROJECTOR OR FLIP CHART
You may be allowed to use an overhead projector (OHP), data projector, or flip chart as part of your talk,
If you think that you might like to use one, then it's wise to try to practice on one beforehand so you know
what you are doing!
Before you start check the computer and the lighting: make sure no bright lights are illuminating the
screen.
Stand to one side of the projector/flip chart, so the audience can see the material.
Face and speak to your audience, not the screen. Inexperienced PowerPoint presenters have their
backs to the audience most of the time!
All too often the slides are just a security blanket for the speaker, not visual aids for the audience.
Don't use too many slides: three or four should be sufficient for a short presentation. For a 15 minute
session 8 would be the absolute maximum and probably less. Don't have too much text on each slide - no
more than about 40 words. Each slide should last for at least 2 minutes. The more slides and the more words
on each slide, the less the audience will listen- whereas the less and simpler slides you have, the better you
will communicate. Plan your presentation carefully and only use slides where they will clarify points.
Don't try to write too much on each slide: 30 to 40 words in a large font size is ample for one
transparency. Use note form and bullets rather than full sentences. It is very hard for a member of the
audience to read slides and listen simultaneously - they are unlikely to do doing either well. The best slides
contain just one word.
Slides can contain prompts to remind you of what you will say next.
Press w to blank the scene or to black it out (pressing any key restores the slides) when talking about a
point which does not require a slide thus reducing the distraction for the audience.
Use a large (about 24 point) SANS font such as Verdana or Lucida Sans. DON'T PUT EVERYTHING
IN UPPER CASE AS THIS LOOKS CRUDE. Check that the slides are easy to read from a distance.
Use colour and bold for emphasis but don't use too much colour. Have a good contrast e.g. dark blue
text on a cream background.
Pictures, especially tables, diagrams and charts are good. Power-point is excellent for the delivery of
pictures and diagrams and they will help to break up and add variety to the long streams of text seen in
many (bad!) presentations.
A little humour can grab the attention of the audience.
Don't get carried away with flashy PowerPoint transition effects as these may distract attention form
the content.
If using PowerPoint use the Format| Apply design template command. Gives you a wide range of
nicely preformatted slide designs to choose from and saves you a lot of time.
Write down your main points on a postcard sized piece of card as a prompt and also as a backup in
case the technology fails!
Too many bullets can machine gun your audience to sleep! Good presentations will have a variety of
slides: some with bullets, some without and many with images and charts. Twenty slides with 5 bullets on
Dark blue on white or cream gives a good contrast, whereas red text on a green background is harder to
read The average PowerPoint slide contains 40 words each means you are trying to get across one hundred
points, whereas the average person will absorb at most 5 points from a presentation.
What is Audience Analysis?
Audience analysis is the process of examining information about your listeners. That analysis helps you to
adapt your message so that your listeners will respond as you wish. In everyday conversations you adapt
your message to your audience. For example, if you went to a party the night before, you would explain the
party differently to your friends and family. To your best friend you might say, "We partied all night and
there were tons of people there." To your mother you might say, "Oh, I had fun with my friends." And to
your significant other you might say, "It was fun, I had a great bonding time with my friends." In each of
these situations, you are adapting your message to your listening audience. There are three phases in
audience analysis: adaptation before, during, and after the speech.
Using the word "A-U-D-I-E-N-C-E" as an acronym we can determine some general audience
analysis categories that these surveys should include.
A nalysis - Who are they? How many will be there?
U nderstanding - What is their knowledge of the subject?
D emographics - What is their age, sex, educational background?
I nterest - Why are they there? Who asked them to be there?
E nvironment - Where will I stand? Can they all see & hear me?
N eeds - What are their needs? What are your needs as the speaker?
C ustomized - What specific needs do you need to address?
E xpectations - What do they expect to learn or hear from you?
I. Audience Analysis - Adapting to your audience before you speak. When we analyze our audience,
there are three ways to do this; demographic analysis, attitudinal analysis, and environmental analysis.
Examples of Demographic Analysis Questions:
What is the age of people in the audience?
Are there significant cultural differences within the audience?
What is the educational level of the audience
How many males and females are there in the audience
Demographic Analysis involves age, gender, culture, ethnicity, race, religion, and educational level.
Aristotle noted more than 2,000 years ago that few things affect a person's outlook more than his or her age.
As college students we watch the same kinds of shows and listen to the same types of music and have a
common history. We all remember "The Office," Back to the Future, Lady Gaga, and the Iraq War. These
are all things that we have in common. If I were to do a speech about any one of these topics, I know that I
may not have to explain who or what to an audience of my own age. Age is a very important factor and can
be very helpful in picking a topic.
Gender is another characteristic. It is important to find out the ratio of men to women in the class. Also,
make sure that you do not use any sexist language, stereotypes or make jokes about gender. If you were to
insult men in front of a class of 12 men, then in most cases these 12 men are not going to listen to you for
the rest of your speech. You may have also lost your credibility.
Culture is the shared knowledge, behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms of a group. It is very
important to be sensitive to students of other culture's feelings. You may do or say something that may
offend them. Ethnicity is a person's national or religious heritage. There may be a student from China Town
in Chicago, or a student from Little Italy in New York. A person's race is a person's biological heritage. It
is important to learn as much as possible about these students before your speech, so you are sure not to
offend them or anger them. Another touchy subject is religion. Be very careful when you speak about
different religions because people feel very strongly about their beliefs. And finally, the education
background of your listeners can help your choice of vocabulary, language style, and your use of examples.
This can help you select and narrow your topic.
Attitudinal Analysis addresses the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values.
An attitude defines what a person likes or dislikes. When you choose a topic, it is important to find out
your audience's attitudes toward the subject. If you are doing a speech on rap, does your audience like rap.
A belief is what you believe to be true or false. You may believe that rap is destroying the minds of
young teenagers.
And a value is "a person's beliefs or standards." You may value the future and the young minds that will
be running the future. It is very important to find out before your speech what people's attitudes are about
your subject. If you know these three things, it will be much easier to bring your audience to the responses
that you want. Sample Attitudinal Analysis Questions
What are the audience's beliefs, and attitudes, toward the topic?
What are the relevant audience values and motives in regard to this topic?
Environmental Analysis is finding out things like the seating arrangement, the number of people likely
to attend, and the room lighting. The way the seats are arranged will affect the audience's response. It
is also important to know how many people will be there for the speech. And the way the room is lighted
will affect the way the audience responds. If it is dark and the speaker is showing overheads, there will not
be conversation. But if the room is light and open, the audience may feel more free to talk. The seating
arrangement, the number of people and the room lighting are all factors that will affect the speech. Sample
Environmental Analysis Questions
How many will be in the audience?
How will the seating be arranged?
Will there be a podium? a microphone?
Will there be noise and distractions?
Will I have access to A.V. equipment?
Types of Audiences You May Encounter
Neutral
Your audience may be indifferent or not directly involved in the topic you are discussing in your paper. In
this situation, you will want to find a way to get your audience to care or to become invested without
offending them. Here are some considerations for a neutral audience:
The audience may be on the fence at this point, so you want to tread carefully when you are writing.
Include background information to familiarize the audience with the topic.
Try to relate to something they may be familiar with to get them to care.
Hostile
Members of your audience may not always be willing to hear or read what you have to say about a topic.
That's okay. It is impossible to make everyone feel the same way about a topic. Here are some
considerations for a hostile audience:
Always consider the ideas and opinions that do not agree with your own.
Consider who the individuals are that you may disagree with and why they may feel the way they do.
Play devil’s advocate with yourself. Ask yourself (or have someone else ask you) what you might be
leaving out.
Try to find a common ground, a starting point where either your audience can relate to you or you can
relate to them.
Think of reasons of why they support their point-of-view.
Uninformed
Sometimes your audience may not be familiar with or understand your topic. If this is the type of audience
that you are addressing, then you will need to figure out what and how much information to give them.
Here are some considerations for an uninformed audience:
Think about what is essential for the audience to understand what you are talking about.
 Don’t bog the audience down with too much background information. Make sure you are still sticking
to the main point you want to make in the paper.
Decide what definitions the audience will need to understand the topic.
Expert
This type of audience is well-informed on the topic that you are writing about. In this case, you will need
to make sure that you have done your homework and present information that is reliable.
Here are some considerations for an expert audience:
Since your audience is familiar with the topic, don’t waste their time by giving them background
information they already have.
Be specific with the point you are trying to make about the topic.
Do your research. Don’t think that a brief overview of sources will be enough to convince this audience.
Business
If you are writing for an audience in the business world, then you will want to be direct and concise. Often,
this audience does not have time to read extra information and is only interested in the point you are trying
to make. Time is money; don’t waste either.
Here are some considerations for a business audience:
Don’t waste time painting a picture or telling a story. Get right to the point.
Be polite, especially if you are trying to tell your audience something that they may not want to hear.
Always make sure your audience feels as though you are considering them, not focusing on yourself.
Be clear and concise. Keep it short.
Give the audience the information in shorter straightforward paragraphs that will be easy to follow.
Rehearsing your Presentation
Rehearsing your presentation is essential for practising and assessing your timekeeping, body language
(such as eye contact and hand gestures), voice projection, pace of speech and logical order of content. It
gives presenters a chance to amend their presentation and envisage how they will go about presenting on
the day. It may be useful to record your voice on a mobile phone, or video yourself and watch it back,
noting good points and areas for improvement. Things to think about when you rehearse:
Ideally rehearse in the venue that your presentation will take place in, or at least visit it to familiarise
yourself.
Ask friends to sit and watch your presentation, and to give feedback at the end. You might ask them to
use the Assessing Oral Presentations document to help them to structure their feedback.
Look at your watch or clock before and after your rehearsal to ensure you haven't gone over your
allocated time.
Ask your friends to sit far back while you rehearse and ask them whether you are loud and clear enough
for them to hear, and whether your visual aids are easy to see/read.
 Practice using your visual aids. Click through your PowerPoint presentation (if you choose to use this)
several times, to ensure that you are familiar with the order of the slides and know how to move forwards
and backwards through the slides
Practice using your prompt cards with keywords or phrases to help you remember what to say next. Then
edit them to make them more useful.
Ask friends to let you know if your gestures or movement are distracting. (See the Body Language section
for suggestions).
Ensure that all the equipment you need is available and you feel confident about using it.
Reflect on your rehearsal presentation; think which aspects you are happy with and how you will improve
on it for the 'real thing'. This How Did my Presentation Go? document will enable you to record your
thoughts.
Handling Questions
Many presentations today are followed up with a question and answer period. To some people this can be
the most exciting part of the presentation. To others it can be their worst nightmare. In fact, there are some
presenters who purposely avoid the question and answer period all together. Below provided is a 5 step
approach to handling questions along with some additional tips to make your next question and answer
session go smoother.
1. Listen to the entire question
Listen to the entire question BEFORE you begin to answer any questions. Too many people start responding
to a question before the entire question is even asked. Not waiting to hear the entire questions can result in
you providing a response which had nothing to do with the question. Force yourself to LISTEN to the entire
question and make sure you understand the question.
2. Pause and allow yourself time to value the question and listener. REPEAT the question out load so the
entire audience can hear it. It is important that everyone "hear" the question or the answer you provide may
not make sense to some of the people. By repeating the question, this will allow you some additional time
to evaluate the question and formulate a response.
3. Credit The Person for asking the question. You may say something like, "That was a great question" or,
"Glad you asked that question" or even, "I get asked that question by many people". One word of caution.
If you credit one person with asking a question, be sure to credit EVERYONE for asking a question. You
don't want people to feel their question was not as important.
4. Respond to the Question honestly and the best you can. If you do NOT know an answer to a question,
do not try to fake it. Be honest, and tell them you do not know but DO promise to research the answer for
them and DO get back to them.
5. Bridge to the next question by asking them a question. "Does that answer your question?", "Is that the
kind of information you were looking for?". This is critical.. Once they respond to you, "YES" you now
have permission to go on to the next person. This also gives them one more opportunity to say, "No" and
allow them to clarify their question more by asking it again.
6. Parroting: this technique might help if you need some time to reflect on a particular question. You ask
the question to repeat the question and while he/she does so you plan your answer. But this technique must
be adopted with restraint.
7. If you can't answer a question, just say so. Don't apologize. You then may:
1. Offer to research an answer, and then get back to the questioner later.
2. Suggest resources which would help the questioner to address the question themselves.
3. Ask for suggestions from the audience.
Delivering an effective presentation
An effective presenter needs to be flexible, energetic and enthusiastic. This guide will help you turn
your written presentation into an imaginative public performance.
Presentation as performance
Making a presentation puts you on public display. An audience not only listens to your ideas, it also
responds to the way you use your voice and your body. You need more than a well written presentation to
make an impact. You will also need to deliver it in a lively, flexible and interesting way. In this leaflet we
suggest many ideas for invoking energy in your presentation style.
To begin with, imagine that you are in the audience for your presentation. What might:
grab your attention?
stimulate your imagination?
inspire your confidence?
develop your understanding?
Now think about ways to encourage these things.
Six steps to becoming an effective presenter
1. Practice
The more familiar you are with your material the more you will be able to inspire your audience’s trust and
confidence. Do more than practice reading through your material to yourself. If possible, stand up in a room
and deliver your presentation to the walls. Get used to hearing your own voice filling a room. Familiarize
yourself with the words and phrases in your presentation. Play around with different volumes and see how
well you can hear your own voice. Above all, familiarize yourself with the main thrust of your argument
and explore how the individual elements of your presentation piece together. This will help you to keep to
your chosen objectives and avoid distractions when it comes to your actual delivery. To read or to learn?
Should you read out your presentation from detailed notes or present it completely from memory? Find a
way to compromise between these two approaches. There are dangers in each.
Reading
Reading tends to focus your thoughts on your notes, thus losing contact with your audience. Reading can
also reduce your voice to a monotone, removing energy and enthusiasm from your delivery. Directly
addressing your audience is much more engaging.
Learning
Learning is fine until you lose your way; for example, a member of the audience asks a question or your
overhead projector bulb blows. Always have some form of notes to keep you on the right track. Also, if
you over learn your notes you might lose a sense of energy and enthusiasm. Always work for a sense of
confident spontaneity. Find a way of making notes to support your presentation style. The most common
form of note making is to use index cards. These can be read at a glance. Use them as visual prompts to
guide you through your presentation. Use one card for each main idea, including details of the supporting
information for each point. Connect your cards together with a tag or a piece of string so that they can't get
out of order.
2. Assert yourself
An effective presenter needs to be assertive, not aggressive. There are two important Ps. Posture It is
important to appear confident at all times. Different postures create different moods. A very formal, upright
and still posture will create a very different atmosphere from a relaxed and active one. Remember to match
your physical behaviour to the objectives underpinning your presentation. If you want to be either formal
or informal, make deliberate choices about your physical style and stick to these. Have the confidence to
fill your space in front of an audience. Avoid apologizing for your presence by saying “sorry” (although
you must be polite if circumstances demand— e.g. the session is running over time, or the microphone has
stopped working). Also, avoid physical apologies by hiding behind a desk or lectern. You must be confident
that the audience wants to listen and that you have something interesting to tell them. Don’t be afraid to
wait for an audience to settle down before you start speaking or to ask for quiet if this does not happen.
3. Make contact with your audience
One of the key challenges faced by the presenter is to establish links with her/his audience (a poor presenter
appears to be speaking to an empty room). Making contact helps to maintain an audience's interest and
encourages them to believe that you are genuinely interested in talking to them. You can make contact with
your audience in a number of ways, including:
eye contact;
gestures;
spoken contact;
your use of language.
Eye contact
Eye contact is part of everyday communication and an audience can feel uncomfortable if they are denied
it. Making eye contact with individuals gives them a sense of involvement in your presentation and helps
to convey your objectives on a personal level. Make sure that you share eye contact with all members of a
small audience and all areas of a large audience. Regularly shift your focus around the room, not so that
you look nervous, but to help involve as many people as possible in your talk.
A handy tip: if you can’t make eye contact in a large group, don’t look at the floor or ceiling (this looks
like boredom or rudeness). Try looking at people’s foreheads. The people sat around them will read this as
eye contact even if the individual won’t.
Gesture
People use their arms and hands in every day conversation to add emphasis or to help describe events.
Presenters will therefore look rather awkward if they keep their hands in their pockets or rooted firmly at
their sides. Use gestures to welcome your audience, to add emphasis to your main points or to indicate an
ending. Try to use open gestures which move away from your body, extending them out to your audience.
This helps to break anyaudience/presenter divisions. Make sure that all gestures are controlled and precise;
too much movement will appear nervous and unfocussed. Always watch against distracting your audience
from the content of your presentation. You should continually be trying to find ways to help them listen
and understand.
Spoken contact
Acknowledge your audience by making verbal contact with them. At the beginning of your talk ask if they
can see and hear you, or check that lighting and sound levels on audio-visual equipment are satisfactory.
During your presentation, ask rhetorical questions that you can then answer (e.g. “How do we know this
was true?” or “So, what does this prove?”). At the end of your talk give the audience an opportunity to ask
questions or to clarify detail— this encourages them to take ownership of your material. The use of
questions is an important tool. Questions involve your audience’s mind in a more stimulating way than
simply asking them to sit and listen to your talk. Draw an audience in with clear, focused questions.
Language
Your use of language is particularly important in developing and sustaining a relationship with your
audience. Try using language that involves your audience. For example, asking questions such as “What
can we learn from this?” or “How did we arrive at this conclusion?” involves your audience in an
exploratory process or discussion. When looking at visual aids, introduce them by saying “If we look at this
slide we can see that .” or “This slide shows us that…”. Use language that is welcoming and involving
throughout your presentation.
4. Use your voice
Your voice is a very flexible and powerful tool. You can use it in many different ways by varying the:
volume;
pace;
pitch.
Volume
Make sure that your voice is loud enough for your audience to hear clearly. Speaking too loudly or too
quietly can make it difficult for your audience to follow your presentation. Listen to people speaking in
normal conversation. They tend to raise or lower their volume for emphasis. For example, they may speak
loudly when giving an instruction but softly when apologising. To add energy to your presentation, use
these colourful changes to your best advantage: a conspiratorial whisper can draw an audience in; a loudly
spoken exclamation can make them sit up and listen.
Pace
Make sure that the speed of your delivery is easy to follow. If you speak too quickly or too slowly your
audience will have difficulty following your talk. To add life to your presentation, try changing the pace of
your delivery. A slightly faster section might convey enthusiasm. A slightly slower one might add emphasis
or caution.
Pitch
The pitch of your voice also varies in day to day conversation and it is important to play on this when
making a presentation. For example, your pitch will rise when asking a question; it will lower when you
wish to sound severe. Play around with the volume, pace and pitch of your voice when practicing your
presentation. Find different ways of saying the same sentence. Explore different ways of adding emphasis
to your main points. Always try to convey enthusiasm and energy through your use of your voice.
5. Breathe
Always remember to breathe steadily and deeply. If you are anxious about making a presentation your
breathing will become fast and shallow. This will affect the quality of your voice and your ability to speak
clearly for extended periods of time. Try to take a few deep breaths before you make your presentation,
making a conscious effort to slow your breathing down and taking in more air with each breath. During
your presentation, use pauses after questions or at the end of sections to allow comfortable breathing
patterns. Don’t be afraid to slow down the pace of your presentation if your breathing becomes
uncomfortable.
6. Drink
It is a good idea to have some liquid to hand to quench your thirst if you are speaking for a long time.
However, be careful not to gulp ice-cold water before you go on as this constricts your throat and affects
the quality of your voice. Drink a warm (not hot) cup of tea to relax your throat and ease your speaking
voice. And finally ... a note about humour Only use humour if you know it will work. Humour needs to be
relaxed and confident – if used badly, it will only heighten senses of awkwardness and anxiety if these are
already present. Use humour if you know you can and if you feel it is appropriate to do so.
Conclusion
Continually explore your personal style using any or all of the above suggestions in different combinations
for different effects. Above all, remember two main points:
Be yourself— even in the most formal of surroundings you will need to be yourself. No one will be
impressed if you try to perform like a classical actor or act like a stand-up comedian;
Avoid any behaviour that might be off-putting to your audience— always be deliberate and clear in your
use of your voice and physical actions.
Using visual aids
Your visual aids should be clear and concise, providing a stimulating addition to your spoken word.
Introduction
Visual aids can be a very powerful tool to enhance the impact of your presentations. Words and images
presented in different formats can appeal directly to your audience’s imagination, adding power to your
spoken words. Think of using visual aids for the following reasons:
o if they will save words - don't describe your results - show them;
o if their impact would be greater than the spoken word - don't describe an image - show it.
Think about using a variety of different visual images. Try using photographs, tables, diagrams, charts,
drawings, key words, or video sequences. Be creative and deliberate in your choice of images to achieve
the most impact. Think of your next presentation. How can you display your material visually? What
techniques might help you present your argument or results in a stimulating way? What might add emphasis
to your spoken words? When to use visual aids Words and images can be used throughout your presentation
from the introduction to the conclusion. However, remember to restrict their use to key moments in your
presentation; an over use of visual aids can be hard to follow. Think about using visual aids at the following
times:
Introduction
display the title of your presentation;
define particular technical terms or units;
indicate a structure to your presentation by listing your main points;
display an image which encapsulates your theme(s);
highlight a question you intend answering during the course of your presentation;
Main points
highlight new points with an appropriate image or phrase;
support technical information with clearly displayed data;
indicate sequence by linking points together;
offer evidence from your research to support your argument;
Conclusion
summarise your main points on a slide;
present your conclusion in a succinct phrase or image;
display your key references to allow your audience to read more on your topic.
Different types of visual aids
There are many different types of visual aids. The following advice will help you make the most of those
most commonly used.
PowerPoint (or equivalent)
Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of visual aid. Used well, it can really
help you in your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the opposite effect. The general principles
are:
Dos
Don'ts use a big enough font (minimum 20pt) make it so small you can't read it keep the background simple
use a fussy background image use animations when appropriate but don't over-do the animation - it gets
distracting make things visual use endless slides of bulleted lists that all look the same
For more detailed gudiance see the Using PowerPoint study guide.
Overhead projector slides/transparencies
Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on the overhead projector (OHP) — a very useful
tool found in most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects and enlarges your slides onto a screen or
wall without requiring the lights to be dimmed. You can produce your slides in three ways:
pre-prepared slides : these can be words or images either hand written/drawn or produced on a computer;
spontaneously produced slides: these can be written as you speak to illustrate your points or to record
comments from the audience;
a mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides when making your presentation to show movement,
highlight change or signal detailed interrelationships.
Make sure that the text on your slides is large enough to be read from the back of the room. A useful rule
of thumb is to use 18 point text if you are producing slides with text on a computer. This should also help
reduce the amount of information on each slide. Avoid giving your audience too much text or overly
complicated diagrams to read as this limits their ability to listen. Try to avoid lists of abstract words as these
can be misleading or uninformative.
White or black board
White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or routines, particularly in
the sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your key points as you introduce your presentation
(this will give you a fixed list to help you recap as you go along). Rather than expecting the audience to
follow your spoken description of an experiment or process, write each stage on the board, including any
complex terminology or precise references to help your audience take accurate notes. However, once you
have written something on the board you will either have to leave it there or rub it off - both can be
distracting to your audience. Check to make sure your audience has taken down a reference before rubbing
it off - there is nothing more frustrating than not being given enough time!
Avoid leaving out of date material from an earlier point of your presentation on the board as this might
confuse your audience. If you do need to write ‘live’, check that your audience can read your writing.
Paper handouts
Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your information is too detailed to fit on a slide or if you
want your audience to have a full record of your findings. Consider the merits of passing round your
handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a presentation. Given too early and they may prove a
distraction. Given too late and your audience may have taken too many unnecessary notes. Given out in the
middle and your audience will inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of avoiding these pitfalls
is to give out incomplete handouts at key stages during your presentation. You can then highlight the
missing details vocally, encouraging your audience to fill in the gaps.
Flip chart
A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very useful and flexible way of recording information
during your presentation — you can even use pre-prepared sheets for key points. Record information as
you go along, keeping one main idea to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to help you recap your main
points. Use the turning of a page to show progression from point to point. Remember to make your writing
clear and readable and your diagrams as simple as possible.
Video (DVD or VHS)
Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to bring movement, pictures
and sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is directly relevant to your content. Tell
your audience what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than you need.
Artifacts or props
Sometimes it can be very useful to use artifacts or props when making a presentation (think of the safety
routine on an airplane when the steward shows you how to use the safety equipment). If you bring an artifact
with you, make sure that the object can be seen and be prepared to pass it round a small group or move to
different areas of a large room to help your audience view it in detail. Remember that this will take time
and that when an audience is immersed in looking at an object, they will find it hard to listen to your talk.
Conceal large props until you need them; they might distract your audience’s attention.
Designing visual aids
There are many different rules for designing visual aids, some of which will apply directly to different kinds
of equipment. In general, sticking to the following guidelines will produce high quality visual images:
use one simple idea for each visual;
make the text and diagrams clear and readable;
avoid cluttering the image;
keep your images consistent (use the same font, titles, lay out etc. for each image);
make sure your images are of a high quality (check for spelling and other errors).
Always remember that an audience should be able to understand a visual image in a matter of seconds.
Room layout
Remember that your audience needs to be able to see you as well as your visual aids. Try to involve every
member of your audience by changing the layout of your room. Below are some suggested layouts to help
maximize contact between you, your audience and your visual aids.
Speaking to larger audiences
Try these arrangements in different settings. Use them to create different atmospheres; for example, an
intimate setting might suggest an informal tone, whilst placing yourself at a distance might suggest a more
formal relationship. And finally ... practice. Always check your equipment to make sure that it:
works;
is equipment you are familiar with (How do you start the slide show? How do you change the pad?
Should you use permanent or waterproof pens?).
There is nothing worse than a presenter struggling with their visual aids. Be familiar enough with your tools
to ensure that you won’t be thrown if something goes wrong. A confident use of visual aids will help marry
them to your spoken presentation helping them become part of an impressive performance.
Summary
Use visual aids to display complex information clearly and introduce variety into your delivery technique.
Make sure that you are familiar with the equipment required to create and display visual aids, and deploy
visual aids creatively in your presentations mixing techniques and media to create an impact.
Group Discussions
Group discussions are now being used as an important step in the selection of candidates both in private
and government organizations. Regarded as an effective tool in the recruitment process besides job
interviews, a GD plays a pivotal role in selecting the best and most suitable candidates from many who
apply for the same post. It is also used as a tool to study the behavioral and attitudinal responses of the
participants.
Definition: a GD is a formal discussion which involves six to fifteen members/participants who sit in age
group to discuss a topic or a case given for this purpose. It is a methodology used by organization to gauge
whether a candidate possess certain personality traits/skills that are desired of him/her. It is like a football
or hockey game where all the players pass the ball to their team players and aim for a common goal. In a
game of football the team which has a better coordination and skills wins the game and so is the case in
GD.
2.1Characteristics of group discussion
Group discussions are unstructured and less formal compared to meetings or conferences wherein specific
roles are assigned to the participants. In a group discussion, an individual’s thought process is influenced
by the views and opinions of the other members. It also depends on where and in which direction the mood
of the discussion moves. In a group discussion, each participant is free to speak his views. A successful
discussion involves both listening and speaking.
Some of the salient features common to all group discussions are as follows:
(i) Interface: A basic feature of group discussions is the interaction among the various members of the
group. They see, hear and communicate with each other orally by paying attention to each other.
(ii) Leader and Members: Group discussions are effective only when there is a group of members and a
leader. The leader has to summarize facts and information, integrate them, stimulate thinking and agree to
a unanimous solution of the problem. The members of the group become actively related to each other in
their respective roles.
iii) Participation: The effectiveness and efficiency of a group discussion depend, to a large extent, upon the
active participation of the members.
(iv) Interpersonal Attraction: Another characteristic feature of a group discussion is interpersonal attraction.
As long as interaction continues, the likes, dislikes, behavior and temperament of members are known to
each other. Among them, empathy develops and as such they share each other’s problems.
(v) Pressure to Conform: In a group discussion, there is always an element of pressure to conform to norms.
The pre-defined and established standards are always enforced and followed.
(vi) Conflict: A conflict is a difference or disagreement among the members of the group, which often arise
during deliberations and discussions. A conflict is inevitable and usually develops when alternative
solutions are present. It can stimulate the members to find new solutions to the problem. Thus, conflict is
not necessarily bad. But if it arises due to the political behavior of the members it will have dysfunctional
consequences.
2.2 Purpose of group discussion
Group discussions may serve various purposes. Some of them are:
(i) To reach a solution on an issue of concern
(ii) To generate new ideas or new approaches to solving a problem
(iii) For selecting candidates after the written test for employment or for admission to educational institutes
(iv) To provide us with an avenue to train ourselves in various interpersonal skills
2.3Advantages of group discussion
The advantages of group discussions are as follows:
(i) It provides a deeper understanding of the subject.
(ii) It improves the ability to think critically.
(iii) It provides different approaches to solving a problem.
(iv) It helps the group in taking a decision.
(v) It gives an opportunity to hear the opinions of other persons.
(vi) It enables a participant to put across his/her viewpoint.
(vii) It enhances confidence in speaking.
(viii) It can change your opinion and show you things from a different perspective.
2.4 Conducting an effective group discussion An effective group discussion generally has a number of
elements:
All members of the group have a chance to speak, expressing their own ideas and feelings freely, and to
pursue and finish out their thoughts
All members of the group can hear others’ ideas and feelings stated openly
Group members can safely test out ideas that are not yet fully formed
Group members can receive and respond to respectful but honest and constructive feedback. Feedback
could be positive, negative, or merely clarifying or correcting
factual questions or errors, but is in all cases delivered respectfully.
A variety of points of view are put forward and discussed
The discussion is not dominated by any one person
Arguments, while they may be spirited, are based on the content of ideas and opinions, not on
personalities
Even in disagreement, there’s an understanding that the group is working together
to resolve a dispute, solve a problem, create a plan, make a decision, find principles all can agree on, or
come to a conclusion from which it can move on to further
discussion
2.5 Types of group discussion
GD is classified based on the following:
Method of conduct
Nature of topic
Based on the Method of Conduct Bases on the method of conduct, group discussions can be further
classified into the following:
(i) Structured Group Discussion: In this type of group discussion, the topic is given to the participants by
the selectors and a time-frame is allotted to complete the discussion. This is the most commonly followed
technique for a group discussion.
(ii) Unstructured Group Discussion: In unstructured group discussions, unlike in the case of structured
group discussions, the candidates themselves decide the topic with mutual consent. This formal method of
group discussions is rarely used.
(iii) Role Play: In this type of group discussion, the candidates are given specific roles to play in the
backdrop of a given situation. Within the framework of their role, the participants have to solve the
problems inherent in the situation given to them.
(iv) Group Discussion with a Nominated Leader: Generally, no-one is nominated as leader of a group
discussion and all participants are treated as equal. But in this type of a group discussion, a person is
nominated as a facilitator or a leader of the group. He may summarize the discussion or solutions discussed
at the end of the group discussion. Sometimes the leader is nominated by the group members themselves.
Based on Nature of the Topic
Group discussions can also be categorized based on the topic allotted for the discussion to the participants.
There are three kinds of topics-controversial topics, abstract topics and case study topics.
(i) Controversial Topics: These are topics which are controversial and which have the potential to generate
an argument. Such topics generally make the discussion lively as arguments and counter arguments are
presented. This gives the evaluators more opportunities to evaluate the candidates.
Examples of such topics include ‘Should the examination system be scrapped’ or ‘How ethical is cloning?’.
(ii) Abstract Topics: There is a growing trend of assigning abstract topics, that is, topics which are vague
or unclear. These topics enable the evaluators to evaluate the creative ability of the candidates. Every
candidate can have his own interpretation of the topic. Some such topics are ‘Zero’, ‘One and one make
eleven’.
(iii) Case Study Topics: Here, a situation is provided to the participants which may depict a problem faced
by the organization or the managers. Participants need to analyze the situation and think of various
alternatives to solve the problem. This kind of a group discussion tests the ability of the candidate to think
of solutions keeping the situational factors and constraints in mind.
2.6 Body language in group discussion
Your ability to use your own body language to emphasize your chosen words is paramount in all human
interactions..
1. Eye Contact
Eye contact is one of the most important aspects of dealing with others, especially people we've just met.
Maintaining good eye contact shows respect and interest in what they have to say. We tend to keep eye
contact around 60-70% of the time, (however, there are wide cultural differences, so be careful in other
countries). By doing this you won't make the other people feel self conscious, like they've got a bit of
vegetable stuck between their teeth or a dew drop hanging from the nose. Instead, it will give them a feeling
of comfort and genuine warmth in your company. Any more eye contact than this and you can be too
intense, any less and you give off a signal that you are lacking interest in them or their conversation.
2. Posture
Posture is the next thing to master. Get your posture right and you'll automatically start feeling better, as it
makes you feel good almost instantly. Next time you notice you're feeling a bit down, take a look at how
you are standing or sitting. Chances are you'll be slouched over with your shoulders drooping down and
inward. This collapses the chest and inhibits good breathing, which in turn can help make you feel nervous
or uncomfortable.
3. Head
Head position is a great one to play around with. When you want to feel confident and self assured keep
your head level both horizontally and vertically. You can also use this straight head position when you want
to be authoritative and want what you're saying to be taken seriously. Conversely, when you want to be
friendly and in the listening, receptive mode, tilt your head just a little to one side or other. You can shift
the tilt from left to right at different points in the conversation.
4. Arms
Arms give away the clues as to how open and receptive we are to everyone we meet and interact with, so
keep your arms out to the side of your body or behind your back. This shows you are not scared to take on
whatever comes your way and you meet things "full frontal". In general terms the more outgoing you are
as a person, the more you tend to use your arms with big movements. The quieter you are the less you move
your arms away from your body. So, try to strike a natural balance and keep your arm movements midway.
When you want to come across in the best possible light, crossing the arms is a no-no in front of others.
Obviously if someone says something that gets your goat, then by all means show your disapproval by
crossing them!
5. Legs
Legs are the furthest point away from the brain, and consequently they're the hardest bits of our bodies to
consciously control. They tend move around a lot more than normal when we are nervous, stressed or being
deceptive. So best to keep them as still as possible in most situations, especially at interviews or work
meetings. Be careful too in the way you cross your legs. Do you cross at the knees, ankles or bring your leg
up to rest on the knee of the other? This is more a question of comfort than anything else. Just be aware that
the last position mentioned is known as the "Figure Four" and is generally perceived as the most defensive
leg cross, especially if it happens as someone tells you something that might be of a slightly dubious nature,
or moments after (as always, look for a sequence).
6. Body Angle
Angle of the body in relation to others gives an indication of our attitudes and feelings towards them. We
angle toward people we find attractive, friendly and interesting and angle ourselves away from those we
don't - it's that simple! Angles include leaning in or away from people, as we often just tilt from the pelvis
and lean sideways to someone to share a bit of conversation. For example, we are not in complete control
of our angle neither at the cinema because of the seating nor at a concert when we stand shoulder to shoulder
and are packed in like sardines. In these situations we tend to lean over towards the other person.
7. Hand Gestures
Hand gestures are so numerous it's hard to give a brief guide...but here goes. Palms slightly up and outward
is seen as open and friendly. Palm down gestures are generally seen as dominant and possibly aggressive,
especially when there is no movement or bending between the wrist and the forearm. This palm up, palm
down is very important when it comes to handshaking and, where appropriate, we suggest you always offer
a handshake upright and vertical, which should convey equality.
8. Spatial Relations
Distance from others is crucial if you want to give off the right signals. Stand too close and you'll be marked
as "pushy" or "in your face". Stand or sit too far away and you'll be "keeping your distance" or "stand
offish". Neither is what we want, so observe if in a group situation how close all the other people are to
each other. Also notice if you move closer to someone and they back away - you're probably just a tiny bit
too much in their personal space, their comfort zone. "You've overstepped the mark" and should pull back
a little.
9. Ears
Yes your ears play a vital role in communication with others, even though in general terms most people
can't move them much, if at all. However, you've got two ears and only one mouth, so try to use them in
that order. If you listen twice as much as you talk you come across as a good communicator who knows
how to strike up a balanced a conversation without being me, me, me or the wallflower.
10. Mouth
Mouth movements can give away all sorts of clues. We purse our lips and sometimes twist them to the side
when we're thinking. Another occasion we might use this movement is to hold back an angry comment we
don't wish to reveal. Nevertheless, it will probably be spotted by other people and although they may not
comment, they will get a feeling you were not too pleased. There are also different types of smiles and each
gives off a corresponding feeling to its recipient which we'll cover next time.
2.7 Skills Evaluated during group discussion
In today's context, the educational institutes and organizations are interested in team players rather than
individual contributors. During the Group Discussion, the panel essentially evaluates the candidate's
potential to be a leader and also his/her ability to work in teams. Remember that institutes are typically on
the lookout for candidates who will inspire to lead and succeed and for that you need to be a good team
player. Here is a sample list of skills assessed during a group discussion:
Leadership skills:
Leadership is one of the key skill on which candidates are assessed during a Group Discussion. Inherent
ability to lead a team is desired out of a Manager.
Example:
Initiate the group discussion and give proper directions to the discussion. Intervene and guide the group
when the discussion goes off track. Encouraging all members to participate in the discussion & share their
opinion. Moderate group if discussion gets chaotic..
Communication skills:
The participating candidates are also assessed in terms of clarity of thought, expression through word and
aptness of their language. One should be able to speak without any hesitation and at the same time should
not sound harsh.
Example:
Hold attention of the group by using simple language.
Explain ideas in precise way with clarity.
Speak fluently and put forward your ideas without hesitation.
Interpersonal skills:
Candidates are also evaluated on their Interpersonal skill such as adaptability, maturity, coordination,
interaction with peers. While participating in GD one should give due consideration to other members view
point and should not be pushing too hard to make his own point alone be heard. At the same time if a
candidate raises an absurd or irrelevant point one should politely reject the point by giving proper reasoning.
One should try to coordinate as much as possible with all group members. One should not sound rude or
inflexible in accepting good points raised by others. Keep your cool throughout the Group Discussion. Do
not take things personally even if someone provokes you.
Persuasive skills:
This is very important attribute expected in a Manager doesn't come easily in a candidate. In our daily life
also we have seen many people who are not heard much even though have a very good points or idea. Due
to their inhibitions they don't speak much once someone tries to counter their point.
Example:
To persuade the group to accept the points made by them (only if it is valid and genuine one. Remember
you should not be over persuasive as well). To make people accept your view point without hurting or
making fun of any other members. Persuade the group to analyze the problems from different perspectives
and help other member’s ideas to be heard and understood. Analyze and persuade others to see the problem
from multiple perspectives without hurting the group members.
Problem solving skills:
One important aspect of Group Discussion is it is very spontaneous and dynamic in nature. You need to
recollect all your thoughts on the fly and present them to the group. Also while other members are speaking
you need to be listening carefully because that could trigger an altogether new point in your mind and may
give you a chance to speak again. You need to be really involved in the discussion to handle the counter
arguments and answer them well while speaking.
Example:
Analyze the problem from different angles. Answer the counter arguments without hurting any group
member. Should be able to think and speak spontaneously. Resolve difficult situations by proper
moderation and reasoning.
Listening & Conceptualizing Ability:
After making one's point heard to the group, one should be attentive and listen carefully when other are
speaking. Should try to gather as much ideas and facts being put forward. Assimilate the points raised by
others and try to add something new to the discussion.
Example
At the end a good listener who has good conceptualizing ability could very well summarize the outcomes
of discussion in few sentences.
Attitude:
Attitude is another important parameter of most of the Group Discussion. Candidates are expected to:
-have positive attitude,
-encourage others for participation,
-not to put someone down during the discussion
-be good listeners when others are speaking
-accepting other view points (if it’s a valid one)
-not showing stubbornness and harshness
-should speak maturely
-should not raise voice unnecessarily
Example:
One should handle Group Discussion very maturely and should not raise his voice too much that he sounds
harsh. Should be supporting for other members and should be easy going. Should show keen interest in
discussion and be an avid listener.
Reasoning Ability:
Candidates are expected to substantiate the points raised by them through proper reasoning. Just raising a
point without able to justify the same during a GD would not help and may result in negative marks as well.
Also another member could use the same point and well justify it with reasoning. One should logically be
able to think of pros and cons of points made by him and put forward the same to the group.
Example:
While bringing up any point is prepared with answers such as:
-What is the point you are raising? How is it going to help with the problem under discussion? Why you
feel so? Give Any Examples?
Say Scams in India, Just saying scams are not good without backing the sentence with any justification is
as good as not raising the point. One should say scams are not good because it’shurting the Indian economy
badly and hindering the growth of our Nations. Examples: Foreign institutions are not willing to invest due
to scams in country and poor Governance. Also these scams adversely impact the business by attracting
organizations with lesser capability to execute projects.
Team Player:
Corporate world is all about working as a team, if the team succeeds everyone in the team succeeds;
similarly a failure of team is failure of each members of the team. Candidates participating in GD are also
evaluated for their ability to work in a team.
Example:
Be polite and cordial in your communication.
Accept others viewpoint and encourage each member to put forward their points.
Don't lose your cool if someone counter argues the points which you had raised and accept ideas politely.
Avoid any arguments. Help the group to achieve its goal on time at the same time fostering participation
from each member
General Awareness:
The topics given in Group Discussion are mostly of current affairs; at times any abstract topic is given. If
the topic is from current affairs it is expected of the candidate to be aware of the happenings around the
world. The idea a candidate put forwards clearly demonstrated his maturity and interests in the current
affairs impacting the society, nation or the world.
Example:
While speaking on any topic the points which you raise or put forward to group clearly demonstrates your
knowledge about the topic, thus defining you as an intellectual who has avid interest in happenings around
him.
2.8 Successful group discussion techniques
Dos
Organize your thoughts. Pre-plan what you are going to say.
Speak. It is important for the evaluator to hear you speak.
If you have any doubts regarding the subject, seek clarifications.
In the case of group discussions for selection to jobs or educational institutes, make sure that you are
dressed in formal attire.
Be assertive without being authoritative or dominating. Keep your language formal. Simple spoken
English without too much of jargon is most desirable.
Maintain a formal posture which reflects enthusiasm.
Try and maintain eye contact with as many people as possible.
 Try to make friends by speaking to those who hove been ignored by the rest of the group.
Watch your body language. Your gestures and mannerisms odd to or subtract from what you are trying
to say.
Be clear and fluent in what you are saying.
Refrain from extreme emotions. Maintain your cool. Do not take personal offense to anything that is
being said.
Always be polite. Avoid using strong phrases like ‘I strongly object……’
Listen receptively. Do not listen with a desire to contradict or refute. Instead, listen to positively analyze
what is being said.
It may be useful for you to summarize the points mode till a particular time and then present your views.
Stick to the discussion topic. Do not speak irrelevant things.
Remember that the discussion is notion argument. Be polite even if you disagree.
Don’ts
Do not try to be someone you are not. Be as natural as possible.
Do not use too many gestures. They can be intimidating to the other participants.
Do not interrupt when someone else is speaking.
Do not try to stand out by putting the other person down.
Do not ridicule the idea or statement of another participant by referring to it as stupid.
Do not impose your ideas on anybody. Respect others’ opinions.
Do not shout. Use a moderate tone and a medium pitch.
Do not lose objectivity and make personal attacks.
Do not attempt to be a leader by trying to conclude when the group has not reached any conclusion.
But you should do it by showing respect for the other person even if you do not accept his/her point of view
as correct. Courtesy in discussion indicates our level of culture and sophistication. Here are the guidelines
for all GD participants:
1. How to join in the discussion
I’d like to raise the subject of………….
What I think is……………
I think it is important to consider the question of……
I could say a word about………
May I make a point about…………
2. To support what some other participant has said
Remember that you should not say that you support so and so or I agree with him/her. You should support
the views of the person not the person
I’d like to support Miss Natasha’s point of view about ….
That is just what I also think……………
I agree fully with what Mr. Richard has just said. I am in complete agreement with fee slashing.
3. To support disagreement
Again remember that you are opposed to the idea, and not the person who holds it. You can disagree by
using polite expressions, instead of curt expressions such as “You are wrong”, you can say
Please allow me to differ……
I would like to differ……………
I think differently on this issue……
I do not agree; in my opinion…………
4. To make a point very strongly
I am convinced that……….
You can’t deny that……………
Anybody can see that………………..
It is quite clear to me that………
5. To bring a discussion back to the point
That’s very interesting, but I don’t think it is indeed to the point.
Perhaps, we could go back to the point.
Could we stick to the subject, please?
I am afraid we are drifting from the point.