3- Materials in Manufacturing

• Most engineering materials can be classified into

one of the these basic categories:
1) Metals
2) ceramics
3) polymers
4) Composites
5) Advanced Materials
• They have different chemistries and their
mechanical and physical properties are dissimilar.
• These differences affect the manufacturing
processes that can be used to produce products
from them.
1) Metals
 Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as
iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic
elements (for example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small
amounts.
 Two basic groups:
1. Ferrous metals – Based on iron, comprises about 75% of metal in the world.
Example; Steel and cast iron.
2. Nonferrous metals – All other metallic elements. Example; Aluminum,
copper, nickel, silver, tin, etc.
1) Metals
Properties of metal:
• Extremely good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not
transparent to visible light.
• Strong and Ductile
• A polished metal surface has a Lustrous appearance.
• resistant to fracture which accounts for their widespread use in
structural applications
• In addition, some of the metals (Fe, Co and Ni) have desirable
magnetic properties
Examples :
Iron –Aluminium–Copper–Titanium–Gold-Nickel
Applications:
some important and popular metals uses:
• In the Construction Industry
• In electronics
• Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles
• Decorative products
• Other Uses
 2) Ceramics
• Ceramics are compounds containing metallic and nonmetallic
elements. Typical nonmetallic elements are oxides, nitrides, and
carbides.
• For example, some of the common ceramic materials include
aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2),
silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), clay minerals (i.e.,
porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.
Properties of Ceramics:
• Ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and
strengths are comparable to those of the metals
• Ceramics are typically very hard but extremely brittle
• Highly susceptible to fracture
• These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and
electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities)
• More resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than
metals and polymers
• Ceramics may be transparent or opaque
2) Ceramics
Examples :
Aluminium Oxide -Silicon Dioxide -Silicon Carbide –Glass -Cement
Applications:
• Used in space industry because of their low weight
• Used as cutting tools
• Used as thermal insulator
• Used as electrical insulator
• Used in making brick, tie and pottery
3) Polymers
• A chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting essentially of
repeating structural units called mer.
• Polymer usually consists of carbon plus one or more elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

• They are divided into three categories:

1) Thermoplastic polymers: can be subjected to multiple heating and
cooling cycles without altering molecular structure; e.g. polyethylene,
polystyrene and nylon.
2) Thermosetting polymers: molecules chemically transform into a rigid
structure upon cooling from a heated plastic condition; e.g. epoxies and
amino resins.
3) Elastomers: they exhibit significant elastic behavior; e.g. silicon and
rubber.
3) Polymers
Properties of Polymers:
• They are not as stiff nor as strong as other material types.
• Many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable, which
means they are easily formed into complex shapes
• Have low electrical conductivities - low density –ductile and
chemically inert and are nonmagnetic.
• One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some
instances, limits their use
Examples:
Polyethylene (PE) –Nylon-Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
Polycarbonate (PC) -Polystyrene (PS) -Silicone rubber.
Applications:
In aircraft, aerospace, and sports equipment
3) Polymers
 4) Composites
• A composite is a material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to achieve properties
superior to its constituents.
• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which
come from the categories discussed above — metals, ceramics, and
polymers.
• Properties depend on its components, physical shapes of components, and
the way they are combined to form the final material. Some composites
combine high strength and light weight and are used as aircraft
components, car bodies, etc. Other composites are strong and hard and
capable of maintaining these properties at high temperatures; e.g.
cemented carbide cutting tools.
4) Composites
Properties of Composites :
• The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of
properties that is not displayed by any single material, and also
to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the
component materials

Examples and applications:

Used in some air craft and aerospace applications, car bodies as
well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs,
tennis rackets, and skis/snow boards).
5) Advanced Materials

• Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech)

applications. These advanced materials are typically traditional
materials whose properties have been enhanced.
• Advanced materials include:
a) Semiconductors Materials
b) Biomaterials
c) Smart materials
d) Nano-engineered materials
5) Advanced Materials
a) Semiconductors Materials:
• Semiconductors have electrical properties (electrical
conductivity value) that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (metals and metal alloys) and insulators (ceramics
and polymers).
• Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or
germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium
selenide.
5) Advanced Materials
b) Biomaterials :
• Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the
human body for replacement of diseased or damaged body parts.
• These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be
compatible with body tissues (i.e. must not cause adverse
biological reactions).
• Example of Biomaterial:
5) Advanced Materials
c) Nano-engineered materials:
• The ability to carefully arrange atoms provides opportunities to develop
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other properties that are not other
wise possible. We call this the “bottom-up” approach.
• The study of the properties of these materials is termed
“nanotechnology”; the “nano” prefix denotes that the dimensions of
these structural entities are on the order of a nano-meter (109m).
5) Advanced Materials
d) Smart materials:
• These materials are able to sense changes in their environments
and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners.
• Smart materials are materials that have properties which
change reversibly, ie can change easily but can then easily
change back, depending on changes in their surroundings.
• Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of
sensor (that detects an input signal), and an actuator (that
performs a responsive and adaptive function).
• Some examples :
- Thermochromic pigments:
- Shape Memory Materials:
• Shape Memory Materials (SMM) are those materials which, after being
deformed plastically (i.e., permanently) at the room temperature into
various shapes, return to their original shapes upon heating.
• Typical Shape Memory Alloys are:
1) 55%Ni-45%Ti
2) Copper-Aluminum-Nickel
3) Copper-Zinc-Aluminum
4) Iron-Manganese-Silicon
 4- Measurements and Gauging
4.1)- Dimensional deviation:
• In production, it is impossible to keep the absolute dimensions of
a work piece exactly.
• Deviation from absolute dimensions is due to:
- Wear of machine tool
- Machine vibrations
- Continuous wear of movable parts of the machine itself
- Measurement errors (device or worker).
• Therefore, absolute dimension of a part can be maintained within
defined limits (tolerance), its value depends on:
- The manufacturing methods
- The functional requirements
• It should be kept in mind that,

Greater accuracy costs more money.

4.2)- Dimensional measurements:
• The basic purpose of measurements in engineering industry is to
determine whether a component has been manufactured to
required specifications or not.
• Dimensional measurements are classified to linear, angular and
surface measurements.
4.2.1)- Linear measurements:
• The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as:
a. Direct measuring instruments:
Where the length is directly measured with the measuring tools
such as ruler, vernier caliper and micrometer.
b. Indirect measuring instruments:
Where the length is compared with gauges that judge if the
measured length lies within a specific range or not as in plain
plug gauges, ring & snap gauges and thread gauges.
 a.1- Steel rulers:
• They are graded metallic strips having different scales (mm, cm
and inches)
• They are usually made of stainless steels and used for measuring
linear dimensions with low precision (about 1 mm).
 a.2- Vernier caliper:
• It is a dimensional measuring device made of high quality steel
and used to measure different dimensions with more precision
(0.02 mm).
• It is commonly used to measure accurately:
-External shaft diameters (using external jaws)
-Internal diameters of holes (using internal jaws)
-Thickness of various parts(using external jaws)
-Internal dimensions of hollow jobs (using depth measuring blade)
• Working principle :
- The vernier scale is divided into 10 equal divisions
(accuracy = 0.1 mm).
-The measurement considers both the main and vernier scales.
-The first reading is taken on the main scale to the location of the
zero mark on the vernier scale (3 mm)
- The fraction of the mm is determined by defining the mark on
the vernier scale which exactly coincides with a mark on the
main scale (0.7 mm)
- The reading is therefore 3.7 mm
Reading = 15.8 mm

Reading = 40 mm

Reading = 34.6 mm
 Reading = 121.68 mm

Reading = 37.46 mm

Reading = 30.88 mm
 a.3- Micrometer:
• Micrometer is one of the most widely used precision instruments.
It is primarily used to measure external dimensions like diameters
of shafts, thickness of parts etc. to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
• Types of micrometers are:
- Inside micrometer
- Outside micrometer
- Depth micrometer
• Working principle :
- The measured object is placed between the jaws and the thimble
is rotated using the ratchet until the object is firmly secured
between the jaws. Ratchet knob must be used to secure the
object firmly between the jaw (recommends 3 clicks).
- The lock is used to prevent thimble rotation while reading.
- The micrometer has main scale and auxiliary scale which is
marked on a rotary thimble.
- The thimble pitch (distance/revolution usually = 0.5 mm) must be
included if the mark below the main scale is visible between the
thimble and the main scale division on the sleeve.
 Reading = 7.38 mm

Reading = 7.0+0.5+0.22=7.72 mm

Reading = 3.46 mm
Reading = 3.0+0.5+0.06=3.56 mm

Reading = 5.0+0.5+0.3=5.8 mm
Reading = 3.09 mm

Reading = 0.29 mm
b. Indirect measuring instruments:
 Where the length is compared with gauges that judge if the
measured length lies within a specific range or not as in plain
plug gauges, ring & snap gauges and thread gauges.
 They are employed to avoid costly and long testing process of
the component dimensions.
 They are classified into:
- Gauges for checking shafts
- Gauges for checking holes
- Gauges for checking forms
- Gauges for checking threads
- Gauges for checking tapers
 b.2- Snap gauges:
• They are used to check different shaft diameters or plate thickness
with variable tolerances by changing the anvils.
 b.3- Thread gauges:
• They are used to check both the internal and external threads.
• For inspection of internal threads, gauges similar to plug gauges
are used but with threaded Go and No Go ends.
4.2.2)- Angular measurements:
• Angle is formed by intersection of two rays called “sides of the
angle”, sharing a common end point called “vertex of the angle”.
• A complete cycle around the angle vertex is divided into 360
measuring unit called “degree”.

• Bevel protractor is an instrument used for testing and measuring

angles. It has two adjustable blades and can be adjusted to measure
the required angle.
4.2.3)- Surface measurements:
• These measurements are performed to determine the shape
deviations such as:
a-Straightness
b-Flatness
c-Roundness
d-Squareness
e-Surface roughness
a- Straightness measurements:
Straightness is a property of a nominally straight line. It
characterizes a line (edge, median line, line on a surface) in what
concerns its deviation from an ideal straight line, but it is not
sufficient to characterize a surface in global terms.
b- Flatness measurements:
- Spirit Level Method
c- Roundness measurements: