Chapter 2 (2021)

Introduction to materials and the

family of materials
Chapter 1 (Callister)

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 2.1 Study outcomes:
•Appreciate the development and increase in diversity
of materials.
•Know and define material properties
•Know the five families of materials
•Understand the classification system for a material .
•Know the three families of processing of a material
•Understand the classification system of the process.
•Process property interaction
•Specify a material and /or process for manufacturing of a
given component

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2.2 The paradigm of materials and our world

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The develop-
ment of
materials
over time.

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 Materials and our choices
• Imagine a world without materials?
• To make something out of any material you need a
process.
• The process has to be compatible with the material you
plan to use.
• Will our choice of material or process affect the
environment?

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The life-cycle assessment of a product

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 2.3 The “structure” of materials
1. Subatomic structure: electrons, protons, neutrons
2. Atomic structure: arrangement of atoms: regular
lattice (metals), monomeric units (polymers)
3. Nanostructure: aggregates or collections of atoms to
form small particles in the <100nm range (metals and
ceramics) or molecular chains (polymers)
4. Microstructure: collection of structural elements
generally in the size range of 100 nm to mm to form
grains in metals or fibers in polymers
5. Macrostructure: collection of structural elements
visible by naked eye and from mm to meters and beyond
The “structure” of materials (cont’d)

Atomic structure Lattice structure Nano-structure on Ta

Grain microstructure in metals Macrostructure

 2.4 Material properties
• Mechanical properties
• Thermal properties
• Electrical, magnetic and
optical properties
• Combinations of the above
• Deterioration in performance
• Can the product be recycled?

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Material property maps
 2.4.1 Mechanical Properties
Some of the important mechanical property terms:
1) E: Elastic Modulus: indicates the stiffness of material. For
example steel has E of 207 GPa and polyethylene has1.08
GPa
2) Yield strength: Strength at which permanent
deformation starts to occur. Examples: Al alloys have a
YS of 107 MPa while Lead only has a YS of 5.5 MPa
3) Tensile strength : The TS is defined as the highest value of
engineering stress where fracture starts. Examples are: High
strength steel 3000 MPa , Al 500 MPa
4) Elongation to fracture: % elongation of a given gauge
length, ∆L/L0. Example: low strength steel: 25%
5) Reduction in area: % reduction in cross-sectional area
∆A/A0. Example: high strength steel: 45%

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 2.4.1 Mechanical Properties (cont’d)
6) Ductility : A descriptive term of the maximum deformation
to fracture: both ∆L/L0 and/or ∆A/A0 in % are used
7) Hardness : It is the measure of the material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (permanent deformation)
8) Resilience : Is the measure of the amount of energy that
can be absorbed under elastic loading conditions ( which is
released completely when loads are removed) Units:
J/m3
9) Resistance to fracture or Fracture Toughness: a
function of resistance to crack growth. Units MPa/m0.5

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Fig : shows consequences of various mechanical
properties mentioned above

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 2.4.2 Thermal properties
Properties of material change with temperature. With
increasing temperature it starts to creep (deform slowly),
it may oxidize or degrade and there is loss of strength.

1) There is a limiting temperature called the

maximum service temperature Tmax for use of any
material.

2) Linear Thermal expansion coefficient αl Materials

expand when heated but by differing amounts which
depend on this factor. Unit is “per °C” or (°C-1)

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2.4.2. Thermal Properties (cont’d)
 Thermal conductivity and heat capacity are the two
factors responsible for the “feel” of the material.
3) Thermal conductivity k: measures the rate at which
heat flows through the material at constant temperature.
Unit is W/m K.
4) Heat capacity Cp is the measure of the amount of heat
that it takes to raise the temperature of material by a
given amount . Unit is J/K

5) Thermal diffusivity DT: The property governing

transient heat flow (when temperature varies with time)
is the thermal diffusivity. Units: m2/sec)

5. 15
 The roles of a
material’s thermal
expansion, conductivity,
heat capacity and
thermal diffusivity

Conductivity?
Heat cap.?
On/off switch?
Heating element?

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 2.4.3 Electrical properties
• Electrical conduction and insulation

• Resistivity, inverse of
electrical conductivity.

• Dielectric properties

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2.4.4. Magnetic, optical and corrosion properties
Electric current induces magnetic fields.
• Hard magnets and soft magnets and their uses

Electro- Nd permanent
magnets magnet in
computer
hard drive
Optical uses

Float
glass

Products often have to function in hostile or a corrosive

environment.

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 2.5 Design-limiting properties or
“Fit-for-purpose”
The performance of a component is limited by certain
properties of a material of which it is made. Materials are
chosen by identifying design limiting properties and
applying limits to them.
Discussion of F-f-P:

A B C

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 2.6 Classifying materials
Conventionally materials are classified into five broad
families.

1.Metals
2.Polymers/elastomers
3.Ceramics / Glasses
4.Composites/Hybrids
5.Advanced materials

2019/07/08 2019/07/08 20
 Examples of
each material’s
family

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Practice: identify the families of materials

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2.7 The family of Metals: characteristics

1. Metals : Have a high stiffness, they are tough

with usefully high fracture toughness. They are
made strong by alloying, mechanical processing
and heat treatment. They are reactive and so
most of them corrode if not protected.

2. The key feature that distinguishes metals from

non- metals is their bonding. Metallic materials
have free electrons that are free to move easily
from one atom to the next

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Metals are mainly grouped into two categories

 Ferrous metals and alloys.

Examples are irons , carbon steel, alloy steels,
stainless steel , tool steel and die steels

 Non-ferrous metals and alloys

Examples are Aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium, precious
metals, super-alloys and other alloys

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Typical examples of metals within this family

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Depletion of resources: Recycling of metals
“The world has enough steel, we need only to recycle it”

Problem of sorting materials in a scrapped car

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2.8 Ceramics : non-metallic inorganic solids,
typically crystalline in nature and are compounds
formed between metallic and non metallic elements:
ex Alumina, silicon nitride

The two most common chemical bonds in

ceramic materials are covalent and ionic
They are stiff, hard, abrasion resistant and retain
their strength to high temperatures. Most of
them are good insulators. They have low
fracture toughness values and are mostly
brittle at room temperature.

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Typical examples of ceramics are
• Structural clay products (bricks, roofing , wall
tiles etc)

• Refractories, cements, abrasives, cutting tools

Si-Nitrides Alumina-based

• Naturally occurring: Graphite , sand

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Glasses : Are noncrystalline solids. Common ones are
borosilicate glasses and sodalime. Lack of crystal structure
suppresses plasticity. They are hard and remarkably
corrosion resistant and are excellent insulators and
transparent to light. But like ceramics, they are brittle.

• Uses : flat glass for windows, container glass (bottles)

pressed and blown glass (Dinnerware), glass fibers
(home insulation)

Question: How do we manufacture absolutely flat glass for

large show-case or shop front windows?

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2.9 Polymers : are organic solids of long chains of
carbon atoms. Characterized by low density and low moduli E.
Easy to shape, but few polymers have useful strength >1500C

1) The polymer is a long chain of covalent bonded atoms and

secondary bonds that hold groups of polymer chains together

2) Industrially important polymeric materials are plastics which

are subdivided into two groups: thermoplastics and
thermosetting polymers
a) Thermoplastics are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PPE), polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
b) Thermosetting polymers include alkyds, phenolic resins,
epoxies, polyurethanes and unsaturated polyesters

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 Examples

Long singular Cross linked Cross locked

chains, chains, chains,
flexible flexible but shape Non-flexible Crystallinity gives
retention strength

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Challenge: Global pollution and recycling

A B
Planet vs plastics?
A: Plastic “island” in the Caribbean
B: Plastics do not deteriorate, only
break up into smaller pieces
C: Plastic clean-up ship, San Francisco
Non-recyclable plastics start to
C disappear

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 2.10 Composites (Hybrids):
A composite is usually defined as a combination of two or
more distinct materials, each of which retains its own
distinctive properties. This creates a new material with
properties that cannot be achieved by either of the
components alone

Example: concrete is mixture of Portland cement and

aggregate

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• Composites are said to have two phases. The
reinforcing phase is the fibers, sheets or particles that
are embedded in the more ductile matrix phase.
• Typically reinforcing materials are strong with low
densities while matrix is usually ductile or tough material.
• Typical examples are reinforced plastics. Metal matrix
composites, ceramic matrix composites etc

Boeing’s
Dreamliner
Uses 50%
composites

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 2.11 Advanced materials:
They are members of the above families but with
very specific applications e.g. electronic, bio
materials and nanomaterials

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2.12 The taxonomy of the kingdom of materials
Kingdom Family Class Sub- Member
Class
Steel
Ceramics
Cu alloys 1000
6013
Metals Al alloys
Material 2000 6060
Ti alloys
Polymers
Ni alloys 3000 6061
Composites Zn alloys
4000 6063
Advanced
materials 6151
5000
6000
7000

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 2.13 Processes and their classification

Method of joining,
shaping or
finishing
a material.
The choice of
material limits the
choice of process.

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• Primary process creates shapes. The six primary
process are listed : casting , molding, deformation
methods , powder methods, methods for forming
composites, special methods.

• Secondary process: modifies the shapes and properties.

Like machining which add features to already shaped
body, heat treatment which enhances surface or bulk
properties.

• After secondary process comes joining and surface

treatment

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 in a broad manner the process universe can be
classified as three families : shaping , joining and surface
treatment.

The taxonomy of the kingdom of process with part of

the shaping family expanded.

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 Primary processing of steel

Hot forging of slab Hot forging press Hot rolling of rod

Hot rolled coil Hot ring rolling Hot tandem rolling line

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 Extrusion of metals and plastics

Complex Al
Hot extrusion of Aluminium Profiled die profile

Extrusion of
profiles of
thermo-plastics
by feeding with
pellets or
granules

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Examples of
families and
classes of
manu-
facturing

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 Process property interaction
 Processing changes properties.
• If you hammer a cold metal it gets harder; if you heat it,
it softens.
• Plastic bags when drawn to fibers , increase their
strength by a factor of 5 times
• Soft stretchy rubber is made hard and brittle by
vulcanizing

Example of grain
refinement through hot
forging of steel

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 2.14 The requirements of the design
process w.r.t materials
1. Need a perspective of the Development of Materials

2. Need a perspective of the Industrial/domestic Use of

Materials

3. Need the ability to select the preferred material that best

meets the Fit-for-Purpose requirement

4. Need access to the relevant Material Data Bases (there

are probably more than 20000 types of materials)

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The material selection and design process

Ref: Ashby 2e

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The material design process (contd’t)

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The material design process (contd’t)

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2.15 Class question 1: Applying Fit-for-
Purpose
What is the most critical Fit-for-Purpose
requirement for the windscreen of a vehicle?

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Class question 2: Applying Fit-for-Purpose

What is the most critical Fit-for-Purpose

requirement for the frame of a mountain bike?

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2.16 Role of costs in Material Selection

Ref: Ashby 2e

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 2.16 References
Chapter 2

Slide no Reference

4 Materials Engineering, Science, Processing and Design: Ashby 2e, Fig 1.1; p 3

5 NY Times, April 1988; NGK Japan;

8 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 1.2; p 5

10, 11 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 1.3; p 6

12 NGK Japan; Author Stream;

13 Walton et al, Journ. Cleaner Production, 104(2015)p236

15 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 2.1; p 15

16 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 2.2, p 16

32 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 2.4, p 18

34 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 2.6, p 21

37 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 2.5, p 19

41 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 3.1, p 31

42 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 3.4, p 35

43 Materials Engineering ,Science , Processing and Design Ashby 2e, Fig 3.5, p 36

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