Root Locus

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 SAMPLED DATA CONTROL SYSTEM

A system having both discrete and continuous signals is called sampled data system. Discrete
signals which are made up of discrete data or sampled data or also known as digital data of
control system. Digital controls are used for achieving optimal performance-for example, in the
form of maximum productivity, maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum energy use.

Advantages of sampled or digital control systems:

1. Less cost
2. Power consumption is less in digital system as compared to analog system
3. Flexibility in response to design changes,
4. Noise immunity
5. They are more reliable as compared to analog systems.
6. Digital systems are easily available in compact size and have light weight.
7. They works on instructions we can program them as per our needs hence we can they are
more versatile than analog systems.
8. Various complex tasks can be performed easily by the help of digital technology with a
high degree of accuracy
9. Digital control systems are more suitable for Modern control systems.
Disadvantages of sampled or digital control systems:
1. From the tracking performance side, the analog control system exhibits good
performances than digital control system.
2. Digital control system will introduce a delay in the loop.
3. Lose information during conversions due to technical problems
4. Most signals continuous in nature
5. Develop complex math algorithms

Applications
Most control systems today use digital computers (usually microprocessors) to implement the
controllers). Some applications are:

• Machine Tools
• Metal Working Processes
• Chemical Processes
• Aircraft Control
• Automobile Traffic Control
• Automobile Air-Fuel Ratio

1
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Sampling Process
Sampling process is defined as the conversion of analog signal into the digital signal with the
help of a switch (also known as sampler). A sampler is a continuous ON and OFF switch which
directly converts analog signals into digital signals. We may have a series connection of sampler
depending upon the conversion of signals we use them. For an ideal sampler, the width of the
output pulse is very small (tending to zero). Now when talk about discrete system it is very
important to know about the z transformations. We will discuss here about the z transformations
and its utilities in discrete system. Role of z transformation in discrete systems is same as Fourier

5
transform in continuous systems. Now let us discuss z transformation in detail.

We define z transform as

The Zero-Order Hold block samples and holds its input for the specified sample period. The
block accepts one input and generates one output, both of which can be scalar or vector. If the
input is a vector, all elements of the vector are held for the same sample period. This device
provides a mechanism for discretizing one or more signals in time, or resampling the signal at a
different rate. The sample rate of the Zero-Order Hold must be set to that of the slower block.
For slow-to-fast transitions, use the unit delay block.

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Nichols Plot
 D1

Compensation Techniques

• Performance specifications for the closed-loop system

• Stability
• Transient response Æ T , M (settling time, overshoot)
s s
or phase and gain margins
• Steady-state response Æ e (steady state error)
ss

• Trial and error approach to design

Performance specifications

Root-locus or
Frequency Synthesis
response
techniques

Analysis of closed-loop system

No
Are specifications
met?

Yes
 D6

Frequency response approach to

compensator design

Information about the performance of the closed-loop system,

obtained from the open-loop frequency response:

• Low frequency region indicates the steady-state behavior.

• Medium frequency (around -1 in polar plot, around gain
and phase crossover frequencies in Bode plots) indicates
relative stability.
• High frequency region indicates complexity.

Requirements on open-loop frequency response

• The gain at low frequency should be large enough to give

a high value for error constants.
• At medium frequencies the phase and gain margins should
be large enough.
• At high frequencies, the gain should be attenuated as
rapidly as possible to minimize noise effects.

Compensators
• lead:improves the transient response.
• lag: improves the steady-state performance at the expense
of slower settling time.
• lead-lag: combines both
 D7

Lead compensators

1
s+
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a = Kc T
aTs + 1 1 T > 0 and 0 < α < 1
s+
aT

• Poles and zeros of the lead compensator:

1 1
− −
aT T

• Frequency response of Gc(jω):

The maximum phase-lead angle φm occurs at ωm , where:

1−α
sin φm = and
1+α
1 1
logωm = logT + log 
2 aT Æ ωm =
1
a T
 D8

Since

1 + jω T 1
=
1 + jω aT ω =ω m
a

the magnitude of Gc(jω) at ωm is given by:

Gc ( jωm) = Kc a

Polar plot of a lead network

a ( jω T + 1)
( jωaT + 1) where 0 < a < 1

is given by
 D9

Lead compensation based on the

frequency response
Procedure:

1. Determine the compensator gain Kcα satisfying the given

error constant.
2. Determined the additional phase lead φm required (+
10%~15%) for the gain adjusted (KcαG(s)) open-loop
system.
1− a
3. Obtain α from sin φ m =
1+ a

4. Find the new gain cross over frequency c from

Kc a G( jωc ) = 10 log a

5. Find T from c and transfer function of Gc(s)

1
T = and
a ωc
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1

General effect of lead compensator:

• Addition of phase lead near gain crossover frequency.

• Increase of gain at higher frequencies.
• Increase of system bandwidth.
 D10

Example:

Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)

4
where G (s) =
s (s + 2 )

Performance requirements for the system:

Steady-state: Kv = 20
Transient response: phase margin >50°
gain margin >10 dB

Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K

For Kv = 20 Æ K = 10

This leads to: phase margin § 17°

gain margin § ’ G%

Design of a lead compensator:

Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1

s →0
4K a
1. K v = lim sGc (s )G(s ) = 2 = 2K c a = 20
c
Æ K α=10
c
 D11

2. From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω), we obtain that the

additional phase-lead required is: 50° - 17° = 33°.
We choose 38° (~33° + 15%)

3. sin φ m = sin 38 , =
1− a
1+ a
Æ α = 0.24
4. Since for m, the frequency with the maximum phase-lead
angle, we have:

1 + jωmT 1
=
1 + jωmaT a

We choose c , the new gain crossover frequency so that

ωm = ωc and G c (s )G (s ) s = jω = 1
c

This gives that:

40
K c aG( jωc ) =
jωc ( jωc + 2)
has to be equal:
−1
 1 
  = −6.2dB
 a 

From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω) we obtain that

c = 9 rad/sec
40
= − 6 .2 dB at
jω c ( jω c + 2 )
 D12

5. This implies for T

Æ
1 1 1
ωc = = = 9rad/ sec = 4.41
aT 0.24T T
and
20
Kc = = 41 .7
2a
s + 4 . 41
G c (s ) = 41 . 7
s + 18 . 4

The compensated system is given by:

+ 41.7(s + 4.41) 4
s + 18.4 s(s + 2)
-

The effect of the lead compensator is:

• Phase margin: from 17° to 50° Æ

better transient response
with less overshoot.
• Æ
c : from 6.3rad/sec to 9 rad/sec the system response is
faster.
• Gain margin remains \ .
• Kv is 20, as required Æ
acceptable steady-state response.
 D13

40
Bode diagram for K c ⋅ a ⋅ G ( jω ) =
jω (jω + 2)

Bode diagram for the compensated system

j ω + 4 . 41 4
G c ( j ω )G ( j ω ) = 41 . 7 ⋅
j ω + 18 . 4 j ω (j ω + 2)
 D14

Lag compensators
1
s+
Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c β = Kc T
T>0, >1
β Ts + 1 s+
1
βT

Poles and zeros:

1 1
T βT

Frequency response:

Polar plot of a lag compensator K.(jT+1)/(jT+1)

 D15

Bode diagram of a lag compensator with Kc   

1 1
βT T

-20log

Magnitude of (jT+1)/(jT+1)
 D16

Lag compensation based on the

frequency response
Procedure:

1. Determine the compensator gain Kcβ to satisfy the

requirement for the given error constant.
2. Find the frequency point where the phase of the gain
adjusted open-loop system (KcβG(s)) is equal to -180° +
the required phase margin + 5°~ 12°.
This will be the new gain crossover frequency c.
3. Choose the zero of the .425038,947    % ,9 ,-4:9 
octave to 1 decade below c .
4. Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the
magnitude curve down to 0dB at the new gain crossover
frequency
− K c β G ( j ω c ) = − 20 log β Æ
5. Find the transfer function Gc(s).

General effect of lag compensation:

• Decrease gain at high frequencies.

• Move the gain crossover frequency lower to obtain
the desired phase margin.
 D17

Example:

Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)

where
1
G (s ) =
s (s + 1 )(0 . 5 s + 1 )

Performance requirements for the system:

Steady state: Kv =5
Transient response: Phase margin > 40°
Gain margin > 10 dB

Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K

K v = lim KG (s ) = K = 5
s →0

for K = 5, the closed-loop system is unstable

Design of a lag compensator:

1
s+
G c (s) = K c T = K β Ts + 1
β Ts + 1
c
1
s+
βT
 D18

1. K v = lim Gc (s )G(s ) = K c β = 5
s→0

Æ
2. Phase margin of the system 5G(s) is -13°
the closed-loop system is unstable.

From the Bode diagram of 5G(jω) we obtain that the

additional required phase margin of 40° + 12° = 52° is
REWDLQHG DW    rad/sec.

The new gain crossover frequency will be:

c = 0.5 rad/sec
3.
           %  
rad/sec( at about 1/5 of c).

4. The magnitude of 5G(jω) at the new gain crossover

frequency c =0.5 rad/sec is 20 dB. In order to have c as
the new gain crossover frequency, the lag compensator
must give an attenuation of -20db at ωc.

Æ
Therefore
- 20log  = - 20 dB  = 10

5 1
5. Kc = = 0 .5 , pole : = 0 . 01
β βT
and
s + 0 .1
G c (s ) = 0 . 5
s + 0 . 01
 D19

Bode diagrams for:

• G1(jω) = 5G(jω) (gain-adjusted KcβG(jω) open-loop
transfer function),
• Gc(jω)/K = Gc(jω)/5 (compensator divided by gain Kcβ =
5),
• Gc(jω)G(jω) (compensated open-loop transfer function)

The effect of the lag compensator is:

• The original unstable closed-loop system is now stable.

• The phase margin § ƒ Æ acceptable transient response.
• The gain margin § G% Æ acceptable transient response.
• Kv is 5 as requiredÆ acceptable steady-state response.
• The gain at high frequencies has been decreased.
 D20

Lead-lag compensators

1 1
s+ s+
T1 T2 β sT1 + 1 sT2 + 1
Gc (s) = Kc ⋅ = Kc ⋅
γ γ s + 1 sβT2 + 1
1 T1
s+ s+
aT1 βT2 γ

T1, T2 > 0 ,  > 1 and γ > 1

Frequency response:

Bode diagram of a lag-lead compensator given by

 1  1 
s+  s + 
T1 T2
Gc (s ) = K c   
 γ  1 
s+  s + 
 T1  βT2 

with Kc = 1, =  = 10 and T2 = 10 T1
 D21

Polar plot of a lag-lead compensator given by

 1  1 
s+  s + 
Gc (s ) = K c   
T1 T2
 γ  1 
s+  s + 
 T1  βT2 

with Kc = 1 and = 

Comparison between lead and lag compensators

Lead compensator Lag compensator
o High pass o Low pass
o Approximates o Approximates integral plus
derivative plus proportional control
proportional control
o Contributes phase lead o Attenuation at high
frequencies
o Increases the gain o Moves the gain-crossover
crossover frequency frequency lower
o Increases bandwidth o Reduces bandwidth