TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

11. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

86. THE TETRAGONAL SYSTEMincludes all the forms which are referred
to three axes at right angles to each other of which the two horizontal axes
are equal to each other in length and interchangeable and the third, the
vertical axis, is either shorter or longer. The horizontal axes are desig-
nated by the letter a ; the vertical axis by c (see Fig. 166). The length of
the vertical axis expresses properly the axial ratio of a : c, a being uniformly
taken as equal to unity. The axes are orientated and their opposite ends
designated by plus and minus signs exactly as in the case of the Isometric
System.
Seven classes are embraced in this system. Of these the normal class is
common and important among minerals; two others have several represen-
tatives, and another a single one only. It may be noted that in four of the
classes the vertical axis is an axis of tetragonal symmetry; in the remaining
three it is an axis of binary symmetry only.
1. NORMAL CLASS (6). ZIRCON TYPE
(Ditetragonal Bipyramidal or Holohedral Class)
86. Symmetry. -The forms belonging to the normal class of the
tetragonal system (cf. Figs. 170 to 192) have one principal axis of tetragonal
symmetry (whence name of the system) which coincides with the vertical
crystallographic axis, c. There are also four horizontal axes of binary sym-
metry, two of which coincide with the horizontal crystallographic axes
while the other two are diagonal axes bisecting the angles between the first
two.
166 167

% + a1

-
@ 8 Q
0 @ 8
@ @

Axes of Tetragonal Mineral, Symmetry of Normal Class

Octahedrite a :c = 1 :1'78 Tetragonal System

Further they have one principal plane of symmetry, the plane of the
horizontal crystallographic axes. There are also four vertical planes of
symmetry which pass through the vertical crystallographic axis c and make
angles of 45" with each other. Two of these latter planes include the hori-
zontal crystallographic axes and are known as axial planes of symmetry.
The other two are known as diagonal planes of symmetry.
78 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The axes and planes of symmetry are shown in Figs. 168 and 169.
The symmetry and the distribution of the faces of the general form, hkl,
is shown in the stereographic projection, Fig. 167.
87. Forms. -The various possible forins under the norinal class of
this system are as follows:
Symbols
1. Base or basal pinacoid.. . . . . . . . (001)
2. Prism of the first order. . . . . . . . . (110)
3. Prism of the second order.. . . . . . (100)
4. Ditetragonal prism. . . . . . . . . . . . . (hkO) as, (310); (210) ;'(320), etc.
5. Pyramid of the first order.. . . . . . (hhl) as, (223); (111); (221), etc.
6. Pyramid of the second order. . . . . (h01) as, (203) ; (101) ; (2Ol), etc.
7. Ditetragonal pyramid. . . . . . . . . . (hkl) as, (421); (321) ; (122), etc.

Symmctry of Normal Class, Tetragonal System

88. Base or Basal Pinacoid. -The base is that form which includes
the two similar faces which are parallel_to the plane of the horizontal axes.
These faces have the indices 001 and 001 respectively; it is an "open form,"
as they do not inclose a space, consequently this form can occur only in com-
bination with other forms. Cf. Figs. 170-173, e t ~ . This form is always
lettered c in this work.

1 100 /
a
-*
I'
/ --
I
I
I '
)
,---,--
,
I -__
I

k t Order Prism Second Order Prism Fist, and Second

Order Prisms

89. Prisms. - Prisms, in systems other than the isometric, have been
defined to be forms whose faces are parallel to the vertical axis (c) of the
crystal, while they meet the two horizontal axes; in this system the four-
faced form whose planes are parallel both t o the vertical and one horizontal
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 79
axis is also called a prism. There are hence three types of ~ r i s m shere
included.
90. Prism of First Order. - The prism of the first order includes the
four faces which, while parallel to the vertical axis, meet the horizontal
axes at equal distances; its general symbol is consequently (110). I t is a
square prism, with interfacial angles of 90". It is shown in combination with
the base in Fig. 170. It is uniformly designakd b x the letter m. The in-
dices of its faces, taken in order, are 110, 110, 110, 110.
91. Prism of Second Order. -The prism of the second order shown*
in combination with the base in Fig. 171 includes the four faces which are
parallel at once to the vertical and to a horizontal axis; it has, therefore, the
general symbol (100). I t is a square prism with an angle between any two
adjacent faces of 90". It is uniformly designat~dby _the letter a, and its
faces, taken in order, have the indices 100, 010, 100, 010.
It will be seen that the combination of this form with the base is the
analogue of the cube of the isometric system.
The faces of the prism of the first order truncate the edges of the prism
of the second order and vice versa. When both are equally developed, as in
Fig. 172, the result is a regular eight-sided prism, which, however, it must
be remembered, is a combination of two distinct forms.
I t is evident that the two prisms described do not differ geometrically
from one another, and furthermore, in a given case, the symmetry of this
class allows either to be made the first order, and the other the second order,
prism according to the position assumed for the horizontal axes. If on crys-
tals of a given species both forms occur together equally developed (or, on
the other hand, separately on different crystals) and without other faces
than the base, there is no means of telling them apart unless by minor char-
acteristics, such as striations or other markings on the
surface, etchings, etc. 173
92. Ditetragonal Prism. - The ditetragonal prism is
the form which is bounded by eight similar faces, each one
of which is parallel to the vertical axis while meeting the
two horizontal axes a t unequal distances. I t has the general
symbol (hkO). It is shown in Fig. 173, where (hk0) = (2J0).
The i ~ c c e s i v efaces-have here the indices 210, 120, 120,
210, 210, 120, 120, 210. a0
In Fig. 185a combination is shown of this form (y = 310)
with the second order prism, the edges of which it bevels.
In Fig. 189 (h = 210) it bevels the edges of the first order
prism m. In Fig. 190 (1 = 310) it is combined with both Ditetragonal Prism
orders of prisms.
93. Pyramids. - There are three types of pyramids in this class, cor-
responding, respectively, to the three prisms which have just been described.

* In Figs. 170-173 the dimensions of the form are made to correspond to the assume.
length of the vertical axis (here c = 1'78 as in octahedrite) used in Fig. 177. It must be
noted, however, that in the case of actual c stals of these forms, while the tetragonal
symmetry is usually indicated by the unlike zysical character of the fa- c as compared
with the faces a, m,etc., in the vertical prismatic zone, no inference can be drawn to the
relative length of the vertical axis. This last can be determined only when a pyramid is
present; it is fixed for the species when a particular pyramid is chosen as fundamental or
unit form, as explained later.
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 81
edges, above and below, are equal. The successive_faces_of the h r m (101)
are as follows: Above 101, 011, 101, 011; below 101, 011, 101, 011.
If the ratio of the intercepts on the horizontal and vertical axes is the
assumed axial ratio of the species, the symbol is (101), and the form is desig-
nated by the letter e. This ratio can be deduced from the measurement of
either one of the interfacial angles (y or z, Fig. 178) over the terminal or basal
edges, as explained later. In the case of a given species, a number of second

Second Order Second Order Prism Rutile, First and Second

Pyramid and Pyramid Order Prisms and Pyra-
mids

order pyramids may occur, varying in the ratio of the axes a and c. Hence
there is possible a large number of such forms whose symbols may be, for
example, (104), (103), (102), (101), (302), (201), (301), etc. Those men-
tioned first come nearest to the base (OOl), those last to the second order
prism (100); the base is therefore the limit of these pyramids (h01) when
h = 0, .and the second order prism (100) when h = 1 and 1 = 0. Fig. 186
shows the three second order pyramids ~ ( 1 0 5 e(101),
)~ q(201).

m m

Vesuvianite Vesuvianitc Cassiterite

First Order Prism, First. Order Pyramid and First and Second Order
Pyramid and Base First and Scond Order Pyramids
Prisms

A second order pyramid truncating the pyramidal edges of 8, given first

order pyramid as in Fig. 183 has the same ratio as it for h to 1. Thus (101)
truncates the terminal edge of (111); (201) of (221), etc. This is obvious
because each face has the same position as the corresponding edge of the
other form (see Fig. 183, when s = 111 and e = 101; also Figs. 186, 191,
where r = 115, u = 105). Again, if a first order pyramid truncates the
pyramidal edges of a given second order pyramid, its ratio for h t o 1 is half
82 CRYSTALLOQRAPHY

that of the other form; that is, (112) truncates the pyramidal edges of (101);
(111) of (20L), etc, This relation is exhibited by Fig. 186, where p(ll1)
truncates the edges of q(201). In both cases the zonal equations prove the
relations stated.
184 186 186

Vesuvinnite Apophyllite Octahedrite

First and Second Order Second Order Prism, Dite- Two First Order Pyr5
Prisms, First Order Pyr- tra onal Prism, First mids, First Order Pr~sm,
amid and Base 0rfer pyramid and ~ a s e Three Second Order
Pyramids and Base
96. Ditetragonal Pyramid. - The ditetragonal pyramid, or double eight-
sided pyramid, is the form each of whose sixteen similar faces meets the
three axes at unequal distances. This is the most general case of the symbol
(hkl), where h, k, 1 are all unequal and no one is equal to 0. That there are
sixteen faces in 3, single form is evident. Thus, for example, for the form
(212) the face 212 is similar to 122, the two lateral axes being equal (not,
however, to 221). Hence there are two like faces in each octant. Similarly
the indices of all the faces in the successive octants are, therefore, as follows:
Above 212 122 122 212 2T2 i22 122 212
Below 212 122 122 212 Z i Z 122 122 2TZ

Ditetragonal Pyramid Zircon ~Aiterite Rutile

First and Second Order
Prisms, First Order
Pyramid, Ditetrag-
onal Pyramid
This form is comnlon with the species zircon, and is hence often called a
Firwnoid. It is shown in Fig. 187. It is not observed alone, though some-
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 83
times, as in Figs. 188 (x = 311) and 189 (z = 321), it is the pidominating
form. In Fig. 190 two ditetragonal pyramids occur, namely, l(313) and
~(321).
97. In addition to the perspective figures already
given, a basal projection (Fig. 191) is added of
the crystal of octahedrite already referred to (Fig.
186); also a stereographic (Fig. 192) and gnomonic
@
(Fig. 193) projections of the same with the faces of
the forms w(221) and t(313) added. These exhibit
well the general relations of this normal class of the P"'
tetragonal system. The symmetry here is to be nzxr nt
noted, first, with respect to the siniilar zones 100.
001, 100 and 010,001, 01Q; also, t~ the o t h g pair of
similar zo~ies,110, 001, 110, and 110, 001, 110. Octahedrite

Stereographic Projection of Octahedrite

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

193

Gnomonic Projection of Octahedrite

194
2. HEMIMORPHIC CLASS (7).
,' \
\ IODOSUCCINIMIDE TYPE
(Diktragonal Pyramidal or Holohedral
I Hemimorphic Class)
98. Symmetry. - This class differs from
the normal class only in having no horizontal
plane of symmetry; hence the forms are hemi-
morphic as defined in Art. 29. I t is not known
to be represented among minerals, but is shown
on the crystals of iodosuccinimide. Its sym-
metry is illustrated by the stereographic pro-
Symmetry of Hemimorphic
jection (Fig. 194). Here the two baaal planes
are distinct forms, 001 and OOi; the prisms do not differ geometrically from
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 85
those of the normal class, though distinguished by their molecular structure;
further, the pyramids are no longer double pyramids, but each form is r e p
resented by one half of Figs. 174, 178, 187 (cf. Fig. 44, p. .22). There are
hence six distinct pyramidal forms, corresponding to the upper and lower
halves of the first and second order pyramids and the ditetragonal pyramid.

3. TRIPYRAMIDAL CLASS (8). SCHEELITE TYPE.

(Tetragonul Bipyramidal or Pyramidal Hemihedral Class)
99. Typical Forms and Symmetry.- The forms here included have
one plane of symmetry only, that of the horizontal crystallographic axes,
and one axls of tetragonal symmetry (the vertical crystallographic axis)
normal to it. The distinctive forms are the tetragonal pnsm (hkO) and
pyramid (hkl) of the third order, shown in Figs. 196, 197.
The stereographic projection, Fig. 195, 196
exhibits the symmetry of the class and the
distnbution of the faces of the general form
(hkl). Comparing this, as well as the figures
immediately following, with those of the nor -
mal class, it is seen that this class differs from
it m the absence of the vertical planes of sym-
metry and the horizontal axes of symmetry.
100. Prism and mamid of the Third
Order. - The typical forms of the class,
as above stated, are a square prism and a
square pyramid, which are distinguished
respectively from the square prisms a(l.00)
and m(110), shown in Figs. 170 and 171, and
from the square pyramids (h01) and (hhl) Symmetry of Tli-Pyrsmidal Clars
of Figs. 174 and 178 by the name " third order."

Third Order Prism Third Order Pyramid

The third order prism and pyramid may be considered as derived from
the ditetragonal forms of the normal class by taking only one half the faces
of the latter and the omission of the remaining faces. There are therefore
two complementary forms in each case, designated left and right, which
together include all the faces of the ditetragonal prism (Fig. 173) and dite-
tragonal pyramid (Fig. 187) of the normal class.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The indices of the faces of the two complementary prisms, as (210), are:
Left: 210, 120, 210, 120.
Right: 120, 210, 120, 210.
The indices of the faces of the corresponding pyramids, as (212), are:
Left: above 212, 122, 212, 122; below 212, 122, 2i2, 122.
Right: above 122, 212, 122, 212; below 122, 212, iZ2, 212.
Fig. 198 gives a transverse section of the prisms a(100) and m(110), also
the prism of the third order (120). Figs. 196, 197 show the right prism (120)
and pyramid (122) of the third order.
101. Other Forms. - The other forms of this class, that is, the base
~ ( 0 0 1 ) ;the other square prisms, a(100) and m(110); also the square pyra-
mids (h01) and (hhl) are geometrically like the corresponding forms of the
normal class already described. The class shows therefore three types of
square pyramids and hence is called the tripyramidal class.
102. To this class belongs the important species scheelite; also the
isomorphous species stolzite and powellite, unless it be that they are rather
to be classed with wulfenite (p. 87). Fig. 199 shows a typical crystal of

Scheelite Scheelite Meionite

scheelite, and Fig. 200 a basal section of one similar; these illustrate well the
characteristics of the class. Here the forms are e(101), p ( l l l ) , and the
third-order pyramids g(212), s,(131). Fig. 201 represents a meionite crystal
with r ( l l l ) , and the third-order pyramid ~(311). See also Figs. 203, 204, in
which the third-order prism is shown.
The forms of this class are sometimes described (see Art. 28) as showing
pyramidal hernihedrism.

4. PYRAMIDAL-HEMIMORPHIC CLASS (9). WULFENITE TYPE

(Tetragonul Pyramidal or Hemihedral Hemimorphic Class)
103. Symmetry. -The fourth class of the tetragonal system is closely
related to the class just described. I t has the same vertical axis of tetrag-
onal symmetry, but there is no horizontal plane of symmetry. The forms
are, therefore, hemimorphic in the distribution of the faces (cf. Fig. 202).
The species wulfenite of the Scheelite Group among mineral species prob-
ably belongs here, although the crystals do not always show the difference
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 87
between the pyramidal faces, above and below, which would characterize
distinct complementary forms. Figs. 203, 204 could, therefore, serve as
illustrations of the preceding class, but in 20'2
Fig. 205 a characteristic distinction is exhib-
ited. I n these figures the forms are u(102), I
- -. ,I
! -..
_---
e(101), n(ll1) ; also f (230), k(210). z(432), I
I
\

~(311). I'
* '.I
\

5. SPHENOIDAL CLASS (10).

CHALCOPYRITE TYPE
I
i

6- --- - -- -
II
\
X

4-
'

I
- - - - - -"
x :
?
I
(Tetragonul Sphenoidal, Sphenoidal \
X I I
I

,'/'
\
~emihedralor Scalenohedral Class) \. I
I

104. Typical Forms and Symmetry. -

The typical forms of this class are the Symmetry of
sphenoid (Fig. 207) and the tetragonal sca- morphic Clsss
lenohedron (Fig. 208). They and all the
combinations of this class show the following symmetry. The three

m
m i J'!
-4.-
-------.-------.__
- _ _ _ _ _ ____--.-
__
I

Wulfenite
crystallographic axes are axes of binary symmetry and there are two
vertical diagonal planes of symmetry.
This symmetry is exhibited in the stereo-
206 graphic projection (Fig. 206)) which shows
-+.. also the distribution of the faces of the gen-
era1 form (hkl). I t is seen here that the faces
are present in the alternate octants only, and
it will be remembered that this same state-
ment was made of thd tetrahedral class under
the isometric system. There is hence a close
analogy between these two classes. The sym-

"---+-
metry of this class should be carefully compared
o x with that of the first and third classes of this
I
,' system
106. already described.
Sphenoid. - The sphenoid, shown in
Fig. 207, is a four-faced solid, resembling
a tetrahedron, but each face is an isosceles
Symmetry Of Sphenoidal 'lass (not an equilateral) triangle. It may be consid-
88 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

ered as derived from the first order pyramid of the normal class by the
development of only the alternate faces of the latter. There are therefore
possible two complementary forms known as the positive and negative
sphenoids. The general symbol o_f_ the_p_ositiv_eunit sphenoid is (11I), and
its faces have the indices: 111, 111, 111, 111, while the negative sphenoid
has the symbol (111). When the complementary forms occur together, if
equally developed, the resulting solid, though having two unlike sets of faces,
cannot be distinguished geometrically from the first order pyramid (111).

Sphenoid Tetragonal Scalenohedron

In the species cha,lcopyrite, which belsngs to this class, the deviation in

angle and in axial ratio from the isometric system is very small, and hence
the unit sphenoid cannot by the eye be distinguished from a tetrahedron
(compare Fig. 209 with Fig. 144, p. 68). For this species c = 0'985 (instead
of 1, as in the isometric system), and the normal sphenoidal angle is 108" 40:
instead of 109" 28', the angle of the tetrahedron. Hence a crystal of chal-
copyrite with both the positive and negative sphenoids equally developed
closely resembles a regular octahedron.
In Fig. 210 the second order pyramids e(101) and ~(201)and base c(001)
are also present.

Chalcopyrite

106. Tetragonal Scdenohedron. - The sphenoidal symmetry yields

another distinct type of form, that shown in Fig. 208. I t is bounded by
eight similar scalene triangles, and hence is called a tetragonal sculenohedron;
the general symbol is (AM). It may be considered as derived from the
ditetragonai pyramid of the normal class by taking the alternate pairs of
90 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

general form (hkl) are shown in t,he stereographic projection (Fig. 214), and
the solid resulting is known as a sphenoid of the third order. I t can be derived
2 14 from the ditetragonal pyramid of the normal
,*--v------..'.
I
class by taking only one quarter of the faces
of that form. There are therefore four com-
/' I ', plementary forms which are respectively
i I 0 ' +
distinguished as right ( and - ) and left
(+ and -). These four together embrace all
/ " I '1,

* I
--------- 4
I
\
t,he sixteen faces of the ditetragonal pyramid.
The other characteristic forms of this class
I
'I 1 are the prism of the third order (hkO), the
/' positive and negative sphenoids of the first
'\,, 0 II ti order ( I l l ) , and also those of the second
x
'.

-----k---' ,/' order (101). I t is said that an artificial

compound, 2Ca0.Alz03.SiOz, crystallizes in
S.ymmetry of Tetartohedral Class this class.

MATHEMATICAL
RELATIONB
OF TEE TETRAQONAL
SYSTEM
110. Choice of Axes. - It appears from the discussion of the symmetry of the seven
claases of this system that with d l of them the position of the vertical axis is fixed. In
classes 1, 2, however, where there are two sets of vertical planes of symmetry. either set
may be made the axial planes and the other the diagonal planes. The choice between these
two possible positions of the horizontal axes is guided particularly by the habit of the
occurring crystals and the relations of the given species to others of similar form. With
a species whose crystal characters have been described it is customary to follow the orien-
tatlon given in the original description.
111. Determination of the Axial Ratio, etc. - The following relations serve to connect
the axial ratio, that is, the length of the vertical axis c, when a = 1, with the fundamental
angles (001 A 101) and (001 A 111):
tan (001 A 101) = C ; tan (001 A I l l ) x $ 4 2 = c.
For faces in the, same rectangular zone the tangent principle apphes. The most Im-
portant cases (cf, Fig. 214) are:
- 5.
tan (001 A h01) -
tan (001 A 101) 1 '
tan (001 A Okl) = -
tan(OOlA011) 1 '
k .
tan (001 A hhl) - h
tan (001 A 111) - I'
For the p r k m
h k
tan (100 A hkO) = 6.
tan (010 A hkO) = -, or
k
-
112. Other CalcuaPtione. I t will be noted that in the stereographic projection (Fig.
214) all those.spherica1 triangles are right-angled whish are formed by great cucles (dmm-
eters) which meet the prismatic sone-clrcle 100, 010, 100,-0iO. Again, d l those formed by
great circlas drawn between 100 and TOO, or 010 and 010, and,crossing respective1 the
zonccircla 100, 001, TOO, or 010, 001. 010. A O ,pll those formed by great cjrcles H w n
between 110 and TI0 and crossing t h e n e - c i r c l e 110, 001, 110, or between 110 and 110
and crossing the zone-circle 110, 001, 110.
These spherical triangles may hence be readily used to calculate any angles desired; for
example, the angles between the pole of any face, as hkl (say 321), and the pinacoids 100,
010, 001. The terminal angles (x and z, Flg. 187) of the ditetragonal pyramid 212 A 2T2
(or 313 /\ 3T3, etc.), and 212 A 122 (or 313 A 133, etc.), can d s o be obtained )in the same
for the given -.
way. The zonal relations gwe the s mbols of the poles on the zones 001, 100 and 001, 110
For example, tKe none-circle 110, 313, 133,110 meets n o , 001, 110a t
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 91
the pole 223, and the calculated angle 313 A 223 is hnlf the angle 313 A 133. If a large
number of similar angles are to be calculated, i t is more convenient to use a formula, as
that given below
113. Formulas. - I t is sometimes convenient to have the normal interfacial angles
expressed directly in terms of the axis c and the indices h, k, and 1. Thus:
( 1 ) The distances of the pole of any face P(hk1) from the pinacoids a(100) = Pa,
b(010) = Pb, c(001) = PC are given by the following equations:

These may also be expremed In the form

tan2 Pa = -
+
k2c2 12.
tan2 pb =
h2~2+ 12. tan2 PC = -
+
h2c2 k2c2.
h2c2 ' k2c2 ' l2
( 2 ) For the distance between the poles of any two faces (hkl), (pqr), we have in general
hpc2 + kg52 + IT
cos PQ =
+ +
d [ ( h 2 k2)f2 1'1 [ ( p 2 + q2)c2
+T21

The above equations take a simpler form for special cases often occurring: for example,
for hkl and the angle OF the edge y of Fig. 187.
114. Prismatic Angles. - The angles for the commonly occurring ditetragonal prisme
are as follows.
Angle on Angle on Angle on ~ n ~onl e
a(100) m(110) a(l0O) m(110)
410 14" 2i' 30" 573'
310 18 26 26 34
210 2634 18 26

116. To determine, by plotting, the axial ratio, a : c, of a tetragonal mineral from the
stereographic projection of its crystal forms. A s an illustrative example it has been
assumed that the angles between the faces on the r v s t a l of rutile, represent,ed In F'lg 180,
have been measured and from t.hese measurements the poles of t.he faces in one octant
located on the stereographic projection, see Fig. 215. In determining the axial ratio of a
tetragonal cry'stal (or what is the same thine, the length of the c axis, since the length of
the a axes are always taken as equal to 1) it is necessary to assume the indices of some
form. I t is customary to take a yramid which is prominent upon the crystals
of the mineral and assume that it is the funlamental or unit pyramid of either the first or
second order and has as ~ t symbol
s either (111) or (101). In the example chosen both a
first order and a second order pyramid are preaent and from their zonal relations it is evi-
dent that if the symbol assigned to the first order fornr be (111) that of the second order
form must be (101). I n order to determine the relative length of the c axis in respect to
the length of the a axis for rutile therefore, it is only necessary to plot the intercept of
either of these forms upon the axes. In the case of the second order pyramid it is only
necessary to construct a right angle triangle (see u per left hand quadrant of Fig. 215) in
which the horizontal side shall equal the length o r t h e a axis, ( I ) , the vertical side shall
represent the c axis and the hypothenuse shall show the proper angle of slope of t,he face.
The angle between the center of the projection and the ole e(101) is measured by the
stereographic protractor and a line drawn making that angre with the line representing the
c axls. The hypothenuse of the triangle must then be a t right angles to this pole. Its
intercept upon the vertical side of the triangle, when expressed in relation to the distance
( 0 - M ) which way chosen as representing unity on the a axis, will t,herefore give the length
af the c axis. In rutile this is found to be 0.644.
The same value is obt,a,inedwhen the position of the pyramid of the first order ~ ( 1 1 1 )
is used. In this case the line M-P-N is first drawn a t right angles to the radial line 0 - P
drawn through the pole ~ ( l l l ) .Thft triangle to be plotted in this case hm the distance
0 - P as the length of ~ t horizontal
a slde. Its hypothenuse must be a t right angles to the
line representing the pole to (111). The intercept on the c axis is the same as in the fint
case.
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM 93
116. To determine, by plotting, the indices of any face (hkl) of a tetragonal form from
the position of its pole on the stereographic projection. The solution of this problem is
l i e that given in a similar case under the Isometric System, see p. 74, except that the
intercept of the face on the vertical axis must be referred to the established unit length of
that axis and not to the length of the a axis. The method is exactly the reverse of the
one used in the problem discussed directly above.
117. To determine, by plotting, the axial ratio a : c of a tetragonal mineral from the
gnomonic projection of its crystal forms. As an illustra'tive example consider the crystal
of rutile, Fig. 180, the poles to the faces of which, are shown plotted in gnomonic projec-
tion in Fig. 216. The pyramids of the first and second order present are taken as the
unit forms with the symbols, s ( l l 1 ) and e(101). The lines 0-M and 0-N represent the
two horizontal axes a, and a2 and the distance from the center 0 to the circumference of
the fundamental circle is equal t,o unity on these axes. The intercepts on 0-M and 0-N
made by the oles of e(101) or the perpendiculars drawn from the poles of ~ ( 1 1 1 give ) the
unit length o f t h e vertical axis, c. In this case this distance, when expressed in terms of
the assumed length of the horizontal axes (which in the tetragonal system always equals
1) is equal to 0.64.
That the above relation is true is obvious from a consideration of Fig. 216. This rep-
resents a vertical section through the spherical and gnomonic projection including the
horizontal axis, m. The slope of the face e(011) is plotted with its intercepts on the at
and c axes and the position of its pole in both the spherical and gnomonic projections is
shown. I t is seen thmugh the two similar triangles in the figure that the distance from
the center to the pole e(011) in the gnomonic projection must be the same as the intercept
of the face e upon the vertical axis c. And as e is a unit form this must represent unity on c.
118. To determine, by plotting, the indices of any face of a tetragonal form from the
position of its pole on the gnomonic projection. I t is assumed that in this case a mineral
is being considered whose
axial ratio is known. Un- 217
der these conditions draw
perpendiculars from thc
ole in question to the
Eries representing the two
horizontal axes. Then
space off on these lines
distances equivalent to the
length of the c axis, remem-
bering that it must be
expressed in terms of the
length of the horizontal
axes which in turn is equal
to the dist'ance from the
center of the projection
to the circumference of the
fundamental circle. Give
the intercepts of the lines
drawn from the pole of
the face to the axes a1
and a2 in terms of the
length of the vertical axis,
add a 1 as the third figure
and if necessary clear of
fractions and the required
indices are the result. This
is illustrated in Fig. 217,
which is the lower right
hand quadrant of the gno-
monic projection of the
forms shown on the rutile
crystal, Fig. 190. Con-
sider. first the ditetragonal pyramid ~ ( 3 2 1 ) . Perpendiculars drawn from its pole intersect
the lines representing the horizontal axes in distances which are equal to 3 and 2 times
the unit length of the c axis, 0.64. The indices of the face will therefore
be 321. In the case of the ditetragonal pyramid t(313) the intercepts are
la1 and +a2. This gives the expression 1.i.1 which when cleared o! the fraction yields 313,
94 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the indices of the face in question. The indices of a prism face like l(310) can be readily
obtained in exactly the same manner a s described under the Isometric System, Art. 84.
p. 75.
111. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
119. The HEXAGONAL SYSTEM includes all the forms which are referred
to four axes, three equal horizontal axes in a common plane intersecting a t
angles of 60") and a fourth, vertical axis, a t right angles to them.
Two sections are here included, each embracing a number of distinct
classes related among themselves. They are called the Hexagonal Division
and the Trigonal (or Rhombohedral) Division. The symmetry of the former,
about the vertical axis, belongs to the hexagonal type, that of the latter to
the trigonal type.
Miller (1852) referred all the forms of the hexagonal system to three equal axes arallel
to the faces of the fundamental rhombohedron, and hence intersecting a t e ual angr)es, not
90". This method (further explained in Art. 169) had the disadvantage ofyailing to bring
out the relationship between the normal hexagonal and tetragonal types, both characterized
by a principal axis of symmetry, which (on the system adopted in this book) is the vertical
crystallo raphic axis. I t further gave different symbols to faces which are crystallo-
graphic$y identical. I t is more natural to employ the three rhombohedra1 axes for tri-
gonal forms only, aa done by Groth (1905), who includes these groups in a Trigonal Syslem;
but this also has some disadvantages. The indices commonly used in describing hexagonal
forms are known as the Miller-Bravais indices, since the were adopted by Bravais for use
with the four axes from the scheme used by Miller in tKe other crystal systems.

120. Symmetry Classes. - There are five possible classes in the Hex-
agonal Division. Of these the normal class is much the most important, and
two others are also of importance among crystallized minerals.
I n the Trigonal Division there are seven classes; of these the rhombo-
hedral class or that of the Calcite Type, is by far the most common, and
three others are also of importance.
121. Axes and Symbols. -The position of the four axes taken is
shown in Fig. 218; the three horizontal axes are called a, since they are equal
and interchangeable, and the vertical axis is c, since it has a different length,

t;+ 2 18
being either longer or shorter than the horizontal
axes. The length of the vertical axis is expressed
in terms of that of the horizontal axes which in turn
is always taken as unity. Further, when it is de-
sirable to distinguish between the horizontal axes
- they may be designated al,.a2, a3. When properly
orientated one of the horizontal axes (az) is par-
allel to the observer and the other two make angles
of 30" either side of the line perpendicular to him.
The axis to the left is taken as all the one to the
right as as. The positive and negative ends
- of the axes are shown in Fig. 218. The general
Hexagonal Axes
position of any plane may be expressed in a
manner analogous to that applicable in the other systems, viz:

The corresponding indices for a given plane are then h, k , i, I; these always
refer to the axes named in the above scheme. Since it is found convenient