3.

498 | Electric Circuits and Fields

The line currents are Di erential length

I1 = IR - IB = 20 ∠-30° - 40 ∠ -150° 
d  = ( dx ) aˆ x + ( dy ) aˆ y + (dz ) aˆ z
= 52.91 ∠10.89° A
I2 = IY - IR = 20.09 ∠159.89 A
I3 = IB - IY = 31.73 ∠ -140.94 A Di erential surface
The total power is calculated by adding the powers in the   
ds1 = ( dxdy ) aˆ z , ds 2 = ( dydz ) aˆ x , ds 3 = ( dxdz ) aˆ y
individual phases [R = Z cos f]
Power in R phase = IR2 × RR = 202 × 17.32 = 6928 W
Power in Y phase = IY2 × RY = 102 × 20 = 2000 W Di erential volume: dv = dx dy dz
Power in B phase = IB2 × RB = 402 × 0 = 0 W
Total power in the load = 6928 + 2000 = 8928 W Cylindrical co-ordinate system (ρ, f, z)
x = ρ cos f
STAR TO DELTA AND DELTA TO STAR y = ρ sin f
TRANSFORMATION z=Z
R ρ = x2 + y2
R
y
ZR
ZBR ZRY φ = tan −1
x
ZB ZY z
B Y
B Y ZYB
dz
Delta impedances in terms of star impedances are
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Z Z
Z RY = = Z R + ZY + R Y y
ZB ZB f rd f
dr
Z Z + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Z y ZB
ZYB = R Y = ZY + Z B + x
ZR ZR
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Z Z Di erential length
Z BR = = ZB + ZR + B R
ZY ZY 
d  = ( d r ) aˆr + ( r df )aˆf + ( dz )aˆ z
Similarly we can replace the delta load of figure by
equivalent star load
Di erential surface
Z RY Z BR
ZR = ds = ( r df dZ )aˆ r + ( d r dz )aˆf + ( r d r df )aˆ z
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR
Z RY ZYB Di erential volume
ZY =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR dv = ρ d ρ dφ dz
Z BR ZYB
ZB = .
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR Spherical coordinate system (r, q, f)

ELECTRICAL FIELDS d  = ( dr )aˆr + ( rdq )aˆq + ( r sin q df ) aˆf

Co-ordinate System and Vector Calculus ds = ( r 2 sin 2 q dq df ) aˆr + ( r sin q drdf )aˆq + ( rdrdq )aˆf

Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z) dv = r 2 sin θ dθ drdφ

Unit vectors are aˆ x , aˆ j , aˆ z
z
z
P(r, q, f)
rd q
q

y
y
dr f
dx dy
r sinq d f
x dz x
 Chapter 6 Filters and Field Theory | 3.499

x = r sin q cos f ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
y = r sin q sin f ∇V = aˆ p + aˆφ + aˆ z
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
z = r cos q
z Z ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂v
r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 θ = cos −1   = cos −1 ∇V = aˆr + aˆθ + aˆφ
r x +y +z
2 2 2 ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

 y
φ = tan −1  
x Divergence
 ∂V ∂V ∂V
∇ ⋅V = + +
The del operator (∇) ∂x ∂y ∂z
 1 ∂ 1 ∂V φ ∂Vz
∂ ∂ ∂ ∇ ⋅V = ( ρVρ ) + +
∇= i+ j + k̂ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ  1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂V φ
∇φ = i+ j+ k̂ where f is a scalar quantity. ∇ ⋅V = 2 ( r Vr ) + (Vθ sin θ ) + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

Gradient of a scalar �eld Curl

Gradient is defined as the vector quantity whose magnitude
is given by maximum rate of change of scalar quantity with i j k
respect to space variable and its direction is where maxi-  ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ×V =
mum change occurs. ∂x ∂y ∂z
If f is any scalar field, then its gradient is given by Vx Vy Vz
Grad f = ∇ f
aˆ ρ ρ aˆφ aˆ z
Divergence of a vector  1 ∂ ∂ ∂
Divergence of a vector quantity is a scalar quantity whose ∇ ×V =
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
magnitude is equal to net outflow of flux from a closed sur-
face when Vρ ρ vφ Vz
 volume shrinks to zero.
If f is a vector function whose first partial derivatives
aˆ r raˆf r sin q aˆf
exist, then
 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
  ∂f ∂f ∂f ∇ ×V =
div f = ∇ ⋅ f = + + r 2 sin q ∂r ∂f ∂f
∂y ∂y ∂z
Vr rVq r sin q V f

Curl of a vector
Curl of a vector is a vector quantity whose magnitude is Coulomb’s Law
given by maximum circulation per unit area when area The force between two charged particles at rest is propor-
tends to zero and its direction is normal to the surface. tional to product of charges and inversely proportional to
If V is vector function who’s first partial derivative exist, square of distance between them. The force acts along the
then line joining the mid point of the particles.
i j K r
∂ ∂ ∂ Q1 Q2
Curl V = ∇ × V = F21 • • F12
∂x ∂y ∂y m12
m21
V1 V2 V3
1 Q1Q2
F12 = ⋅U12 where U12 and U21 are unit vec-
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL 4πε oε r r 2
IN ALL THE CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM tors εr is relative permittivity of medium. εo is absolute per-
mittivity = 8.854 × 10-12 F/n
Gradient
Example 3: Calculate the distance of separation between two
∂V ∂V ∂V electrons in vacuum for which electric force between them is
∇V = aˆ x + aˆ j + aˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z equal to gravitational force on one of them at earth surface.
3.500 | Electric Circuits and Fields

Solution: Gravitational force on one electron = mg Newton Infinite Plane Charge

1 q1q2  ρs E
Electrostatic force in vaccum = 2p
4πε 0 r 2 E= aˆ x
2 E0 3
−a +a
1 q2 1 q2
∴ = mg ∴ r =
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 mg p

= 5.08 m
Electric Field Due to Dipole
Example 4: Find the force are Q1 (20µ c) due to q
Q2 (–300 µc) Q1 is at (0, 1, 2) and Q2 is at q
(2, 0, 0) a
r
1 q1q 2 ˆ q E2
Solution: F2 = U2
4π ∈o r 2 a E1
E

−2iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ −2 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ −q
Uˆ 21 = = i + j+ k
3 3 3 3
E = E1 + E2
1 20 × −300 × 10 −12  −2  1  2  
F21 = × i + j + k  1 q
4π ∈o 32  3 3 3  E1 = E2 =
4πε 0 ( a 2 + r 2 )
 −2 1 2 
= − 6  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  = 4iˆ − 2 ˆj − 4 kN
ˆ .
a
 3 3 3  cos θ =
a + r2
2

ELECTRIC FIELD OF CONTINUOUS 1 q a

∴ E = 2⋅ ⋅
SPACE DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES 4πε 0 a 2 + r 2 a 2 + r 2
 Q  2aq P
Electric field intensity E =  rˆ Newtons/Coloumb
2  1 E= =
 4πε 0 r  3 3
4πε 0 ( a 2 + r ) 2 2
4πε 0 ( a 2 + r 2 ) 2
Line Distribution of Charges For r >>a
rI
2aq P
dQ = rI dI E= =
1   ρ ldl  A
4πε 0 r 3 4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0  ∫l  r 2 
E=   rˆ1 r
dI dE 1
r1 |E | α .
r3
ρI → charge per unit length Electric Field at a point P on the axis of a circular loop of
radius a, carrying charge density λ (c/m)
Surface Distribution of Charges
dQ = r dv  qz 1 
1   ρ sds  E= ⋅ ⋅ aˆ z at z = 0 | E | −
=00
4πε 0  ∫∫s  r 2 
E=   rˆ1 4p ∈0 ( r 2 + z 2 ) 2
3

dS
Electric field at point P from a line of charge of length 2L
rS r1 r carrying a uniform charge λ
ρs = charge/unit area dE
P•
Volume Distribution of Charges
dQ = r dv Z
1   ρ c dv 
E=  ∫∫∫v  2  rˆ1 A
E=
1 λL
4πε 0   r 
2π ∈0 z z 2 + L2 L L

charge r1 Electric Field at a distance z above the center of a flat

ρc = .
unit volume dv rc
disc of radius R carrying uniform surface charge σ.
 Chapter 6 Filters and Field Theory | 3.501

If this unit charge is moved by a short distance dx,

I =√R2 + Z 2 work done in doing so against the force of repulsion is
Z
−q
 σ  z  dW = dx Joule.
E=  1 −  •
R
• 4π ∈0 x 2
2 ∈0  R + Z2
2

r −q
If the point is at ∞, W = ∫ dx Joules
∞ 4π ∈0 x 2
Gauss’s Law
The total electric flux enclosed by a surface surrounding q 1 q
r

charge is equal to the amount of charge enclosed. = =

4π ∈0  x  ∞ 4π ∈0 r
∫ D ⋅ ds = Q
s
where Q is the total charge and D is the
electric flux density. q
V=
4πε 0 r
∫∈
s 0 E ⋅ ds = Q

Q 1 Potential due to a number of charges

∴ ∫ E ⋅ ds = ∈
s
0
=
∈0 ∫ ρ dv
v
If charges q1, q2, … etc. are at distances r1, r2,r3, … etc from
Where ρ is the charge/unit volume? the point at which potential is to be found, then the resultant
The total flux emanating from the surface is independ- potential at this point,
ent of
q1 q2 q3
1. Shape of the closed surface V= + + +
4π ∈0 r1 4π ∈0 r2 4π ∈0 r3
2. Position of charge within the surface
1  q1 q2 q3 
=  + + + 
4π ∈0  r1 r2 r3 
Electric Potential
Electric potential at any point in an electric field near a
1 q
charged body is defined as the amount of work done in V=
4 ρε 0
∑p
bringing a unit positive charge from α to that point against
the electric field.
If a charge q is moved through a distance dl is a uniform Potential due to a line charge distribution
electric field E.
When the charge is uniformly distributed along a line then
Electric force on the charge = qE
potential at any point P due to this linear charge distribution
Work done = F ⋅ dl = − qE ⋅ dl of λ coulombs/meter is given by
Work done in moving the test charge from ∞ to a point P 1 λ
p P
Vp =
4π ∈0 ∫ l r
dl
W = ∫ −qE ⋅ dl = − q∫ E ⋅ dl
∞ ∞

ρ
Potential of point P , V p = ∫ E ⋅ dl Potential due to surface charge distribution
−α

i.e., work done by unit positive charge. Potential at any point P due to surface charge distribution
Electric field E = gradV ρ C/sq m is

1 σ
Potential due to a point charge Vp =
4π ∈0 ∫ s r
ds

+q dx
O x P
Potential due to volume charge distribution
Consider a point charge +q situated at O and let a unit posi- Potential due to uniform volume charge distribution ρ cou-
tive charge is placed at P, x meters from O. lombs per cubic meter is
Force of repulsion experienced by unit positive charge at
q 1 ρ
P is | F |=
4π ∈0 x 2
. Vp =
4π ∈0 ∫v r
dv
3.502 | Electric Circuits and Fields

DIELECTRICS INDUCTANCE AND r2 – outer radius

r1 – inner radius
CAPACITANCE If average radius is given
µ0 N 2 s
Behavior of Conductors and Dielectrics L= , r – average radius
2π r
in Electrostatic Fields 3. Parallel conductors of radius a,
In conductors, there is abundance of conduction or free µl  d  H 
electrons which give rise to conduction current under the L = 0 cosh −1    
π  2a   m 
influence of applied electric field. However in dielectric
substances, electrons are tightly bound to nuclei of atoms µ0 l  d 
and so dielectrics do not conduct current through them. In L= ln   (H/m) when d is larger
π a
dielectrics, charges are not able to move freely and they are
bound by finite forces. 4. Long solenoid of small cross-sections
µ0 N 2 S
L= Hl >> a
Polarisation l
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the nucleus N – number of turns
gets displaced in the direction of electric field and the elec- S – area (πr2)
trons opposite to the field. In this way, a dipole is formed l – length
by a positive and negative charge with distance d separating
them. This gives a dipole moment Capacitance
P = qd Capacitance is the ability of the device to store energy in an
electric field.
In each atom of the dielectric material, a tiny dipole moment For a two conductor capacitor it is the ratio of charge on
is induced tending to align the atoms in the direction of elec- one of the conductors to the magnitude.
tric field. The dielectric is said to be polarized and polarization
QC
P, is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume. i.e., C = or Farad
VV
Pα E For a parallel plate of surface A and separated by a dis-
tance d.
E = total field , ie field due to polarization and external
∈A
field. C= ∈ is the permittivity of the medium∈ = ∈0 ∈r .
Flux density in dielectrics d
For concentric spheres with inner radius a and outer radius b
C
D =∈0 E + P 2
m  ab 
C = 4π ∈  
b−a
For concentric cylinders of length L and inner and outer
Inductance
radii a and b.
It is defined as the property of the electric circuit by the
virtue of which a varying current induces an emf in the 2π ∈ dL
C=
neighbouring circuit or the property of a conductor or cir- b
ln  
cuit is that establishes magnetic flux linkages. a
Energy stored in the capacitor
Inductance of simple geometries
µl  b  1 1 Q2 1
1. Coaxial conductor L = ln W = CV 2 = = QV
2π  a  2 2 C 2
Where l – length of conductor
b – outer radius MAGNETOSTATICS
a – inner radius Electric current flowing through a conductor produces a
magnetic field which is concentric circles around it.
µ0 N 2 a  r2 
2. Toroid L = n  
2π  r1  Magnetic Flux (f)
N – number of turns It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through
a – axial thickness a given area perpendicular to the area. If the lines of force
 Chapter 6 Filters and Field Theory | 3.503

are not normal to the area, we have to take the component µ0 I

which is normal to the area. It is denoted by f and unit is BP = (sin φ2 − sin φ1 )
4π r0
Webers (Wb)
The direction of BP would be normal to plane containing
Magnetic Flux Density (B) dl and r. The magnetic field due to an infinitely long wire
It is the number of times of force passing per unit area i.e., −π π
carrying a current I, we have to substitute φ1 = , φ2 = ,
magnetic flux per unit area is flux density 2 2
φ so,
B = . It is measured in Webers/m2 or Tesla (T).
A µ0 I
BP =
2π r0
φ = ∫ B ⋅ d sWb
s

Magnetic Field Intensity or Field Strength (H) Magnetic �eld on the axis of a circular coil
It is the force experienced by a unit North pole placed at that The magnetic field ∂B at P due to circumferential element
point in the magnetic field. ∂| is

NI A dB
H=
l m P

Also B = µ H q
Where µ is the permeability of the medium µ = µ0µr b c

Circular
Biot Swat’s Law
The Biot savart law gives the magnetic flux density at a point p/2
O
P at a certain distance from a small current carrying element. dfA
SI
 µ I   dl × u 
∆B =  0   2 
 4π   r  π 
µ0 I ∂l sin  
∂B =  2  = µ0 I ∂l
µ0 I  dl × u 
B= ∫  4π c 4π c 2
2

4π c r2 
The components of B normal to the axis OP cancel out
I and components along the axis add up
P
r µ0 I 3
q Bax = sin θ
2a
dI
 When P is on centre of the coil, i.e., at o
Where unit vector u is directed towards the fixed point
at which the flux density is determined. µ0 I
The magnitude of flux density is B=
2r
µ0 Idl sin θ
|∆ B|=
4π r 2 Ampere’s law
The magnetic field B at a point P at a distance r from an
Magnetic �eld of a short straight length or wire infinitely long straight conductor
r0 µ0 I
P B= or B × ( 2π r ) = µ0 I
f1 f2 f 2π r

I
i.e., B multiplied by the length of the contour is propor-
r tional to the current in the wire.
q B B 
Vector H is such that H =  in free space 
dI µ  µ0 
⇒ H × 2πr = I
3.504 | Electric Circuits and Fields

A contour of any shape can be built up of infinite number Force and torques in magnetic �elds
of circumferential elements and for a contour of any arbi-
trary shape. F = qV × B
∫ H ⋅ dl = I c    
F = q( E + V × B ) is called as the Lorentz force.
I is the current enclosed by contour C.
By using the principle of superposition, we now extend
Induced EMF
the law to conductors of finite cross section and any con-
ducting medium having current distribution in it. Faraday’s law (varying field and fixed conductor)
  
(i) φ E ⋅ dl = − d B ⋅ d s
∫ c H ⋅ dl = ΣI ∫
dt s
This is Ampere’s law or Magnetic circuit law.
 −∂B 
Example 5: What net flux crosses the surface S shown in ⇒ ∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫  ⋅ds
s
 ∂t 
figure which contain a charge distribution in the form of a
sin 2 φ C Field is fixed but conductor is moving
plane disk of radius 4 m and ρ s = . a a   
2r m 2 Vab = ∫ Em ⋅ dl = ∫ (V × B ) ⋅ dl
0 0
Solution:
⇒ V = ∫ (V × B) ⋅ dl
Conductor in motion through time dependent fields
∂B
V = −∫ ⋅ d s + ∫ (V × B ) ⋅ dl
∂t
Example 7: Work and power required to move the conductor
shown in figure, one full revolution in 0.02 sec. If the
ψ = Qenc = ∫ ρ s ds 
s magnetic flux density B = 2.5 × 10 −3 ar̂ T and current 45 A.
2π sin 2 φ
4
=∫ ∫ rdrdφ Solution:
0 0 2r
2π sin φ
2
2π z
=∫ [r ]40 dφ = 2 ∫ sin 2 φ dφ
0 2 0
2π
 sin 2φ 
= 2 φ + = 4π C .
 2  0 0.1

Example 6: A point Q is at origin of spherical coordinate

system. Find the flux which crosses the portion of a spherical
shell described by α ≤ q ≤ β r = 0.03
2π β x y
Solution: Area A of the shell A = ∫ ∫ r sin θ dθ dφ
2
α
0
  
= 2πr2 (cosα – cosβ) F = I (1× B ) = −1.13 × 10 −2 aˆf N
A Q   2p
ψ net = ⋅ Q = (cos α − cos β ). W = ∫ Fa ⋅ dl = ∫ ( −1.13 × 10 −2 )aˆf ⋅ rdf aˆf
4π r 2 2 2p 0

= –2.13 × 10 J -3

Mutual inductance between in�nite P=

W
= − 0.107 W.
current carrying conductor and t
square current carrying loop separated Example 8: Findthe induced voltage in the conductor of
by a distance the figure where B = 0.04 aˆ y T and V = 2.5sin(103 t )aˆ z .
µa  d + a  Solution:
M ab = ln H
2π  d  z
2p
y
a
I1 o
d a y
âx
x
Infinite wire 0.2 m
z
 Chapter 6 Filters and Field Theory | 3.505

 
Em = V × B = 0.1sin(103 t )( −aˆ x ) MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
1. Total displacement through the surface enclosing a
So, induced voltage V = ∫ Em ⋅ dl
volume is equal to the total charge within the volume.
= -0.02 sin(103t) V. It is given in differential and integral form as
Example 9: The circular loop conductor shown in the ρ 1
figure lies in the z = 0 plane, has a radius of 0.1 m and
∇⋅E =
ε0
and ∫ E ⋅ dS = ε ∫ ρ dv
s v
 0
resistance of 5 Ω. Given B = 0.02 sin(103 t ) az determine the
current in the resistance R. 2. Net magnetic field emerging through any closed sur-
z face is zero.
s ∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∫ Bd s = 0
3. Electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the
y
time derivative of the magnetic displacement through
R any surface bounded by the path.
x ρ 1
∇⋅E =
ε0
and ∫ E ⋅ dS = ε ∫ ρ dv
s
0
v
Solution:
  4. M.M.F around a closed path is equal to the conduction
φ = B⋅S
current and the time derivative of electric displacement
⇒ φ = 0.00628 sin(103 t ) though any surface bounded by the path.
dφ
V =−
dt
= −6.28 cos(103 t ) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∫ Bd s = 0
V  ∂E 
i= = −1.256 cos(103 t ) A
R ∫ B ⋅ dl = ∫  µ
s 0 j + µ0 ε 0 ⋅d s
∂t 

EXERCISES
Practice Problems 1
z
Directions for questions 1 to 15: Select the correct alterna-
tive from the given choices.
r
1. An air filled parallel plate capacitor has a stored energy I
W0 and a charge of Q0 when connected to a voltage
source V0. If air space is now filled completely by a die-
lectric having a dielectric constant of 2 and connected
NI NI
to a voltage source of 2 V0, then stored energy will be (A) aˆφ and 0 (B) 0 and aˆ
(A) W0 (B) 2W0 πl πl φ
(C) 4W0 (D) 8W0
NI Nl
2. An insulated metal sphere of 10cm radius is charged by (C) aˆφ and 0 (D) 0 and aˆφ
2π l 2π l
rubbing with a charge of 2 × 10-8C. Potential developed
will be 5. If a conductor of cross-section A and carrying a cur-
(A) 1800 V (B) 900 V rent I â y is oriented along the y-axis in the magnetic
(C) 0 V (D) 200 V field B = B0 aˆ x + B0 aˆ y , the force density exerted on the
3. The energy stored in the magnetic field of a solenoid conductor is
30 cm long and 3 cm diameter wound with 100 turns of
wire carrying a current of 100 A is B0 I N B0 I N
(A) aˆ z 2 (B) aˆ x 2
(A) 0.015 J (B) 0.15 J a m a m
(C) 0.5 J (D) 1.15 J
− B0 I N B0 I N
4. For the N term toroid with I amperes, H within the (C) aˆ z 2 (D) aˆ y 2
toroid and outside toroid is a m a m