MOTIVATION

Motivation is defined as the internal processes that activate, guide and maintain
behavior over time. Our behaviour is often expressed in the following terms: I want to do this
or I want to do that or I desire to say this or I said this because of this and so on. Motivation
helps in inspiring and encouraging the people to work willingly.

Motives:

 According to Fischer- A motive is an inclination or impulsion to action plus

some degree of orientation or direction. It is generated through basic needs or
drives .It is a goal directed activity pursued till the attainment of goal.
 According to Caroll : A need gives rise to one or more motives .A motive is a
rather specific process which has been learned. It is directed toward a goal.
Motive is an inner state of mind or an aroused feeling. Generalized through
basic needs or drive.

Classification of Motives:

There are two types of motives: primary motives and secondary motives.

1. Primary Motives: These needs are associated with the biological or physiological
well-being of an individual. Often it is called as biological motives. Examples for the
biological motives are hunger, sex, thirst and etc. Biological motives are universal. It is basic
for all living organism. It is innate and inborn.

2. Secondary Motives: It is linked with one’s socio-psychological needs and it is

called psychological or sociological motives. Examples of these motives are achievement
motive, affiliation motive, power motive, aggressive motivation etc.

Primary Motives

• Hunger Motive:

The motivation to obtain and consume food .Need for food is the basis of this motive.
The longer we are deprived of food the intensity of motive is high. Considering the
physiological basis of hunger it was thought that hunger pangs are taken as hunger signal. It
is quite misleading because the symptoms may be produced on account of temporal
conditioning caused by eating about the same every day. Hypothalamus, liver, smell, taste,
sight of food along with cognitive factors together helps in eating.

• Thirst Motive:

This motive arises out of the need of quenching ones thirst. It’s stronger than hunger
motive as we can live longer without food than that of water. In case of this motive, the
apparent signals come from the sensations of dryness from the mouth and the throat.

• Sexual Motivation:

Motivation to engage in various forms of sexual activity .It is highly powerful

psycho-physical motive. Its satisfaction results in immense happiness and wellbeing to an
individual and as a medium of survival of species .Therefore human sex motive is a complex
blend of innate as well as acquired tendencies. Gonads, testes, ovaries, chemicals like
amphetamines etc. plays role in regulating this motive.

Secondary Motives

• Affiliation Motive:

A need to be with people. This involves behavior of seeking other human beings and
become members of groups.

• Achievement Motive:

Achievement motivation is the desire to accomplish difficult tasks and to meet

standards of excellence.

• Power Motive: Traditionally it was believed that power was derived by people as an
instrument to satisfy other motives like greed, aggression etc. But recently the view emerged
which tend to emphasize the power motive as independent itself and not derived from other
motives. As an independent motive the need for power expresses itself in behavior which
tends to control and influence the course of events including the behavior of others.

• Aggression Motivation:

The desire to harm or injure others in some manner. Factors Leading to Aggression:

1 ) Frustration: The blocking of ongoing goal directed behavior.

 2) Workplace violence: violent out bursts in which employees attack and even kill
other persons with whom they work.

3) Environmental factors

4) Hormonal influences

Theories of motivation:

1) Drive theory:
 Biological needs leads to the arousal of drive, which activate efforts to reduce them.
Behaviours that succeed in reducing drive are strengthened, and are repeated, when
the drive is aroused again. Behaviours that fail to reduce drive are weakened, and are
less likely to recur when the drive is aroused again.
 Need: It is the requirement of some material such as food or water that is essential for
the survival of the organism. When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological
tension as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act inorder to
fulfil the need to reduce the tension. This tension is called drive.
 There are two types of drive: primary drives and secondary drives. Primary drives are
innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for sex) that are usually
necessary for survival. Secondary drives, on the other hand, are not usually necessary
for survival and are often linked to social or identity factors (e.g., the desire for
wealth). Secondary drives are associated with primary drives because the satisfaction
of secondary drives indirectly satisfies primary drives. For example, the desire for
wealth is not necessary for survival; however, wealth provides you with money that
can be used to acquire food, shelter, and other basic needs, thereby indirectly
satisfying these primary drives. Secondary drives become associated with primary
drives through classical conditioning.
 This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the tendency to
maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. When there is a need,
the body is in a state of imbalance. Satisfying the need brings the body back to
equilibrium or state of balance.
 1) Arousal theory
 People are set to have an optimum level of tension or arousal that they seek to
maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. The relationship between task
performance and arousal has been explained by Yerkes Dodson law.
 The Yerkes–Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and
performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John
Dillingham Dodson in 1908. The law dictates that performance increases with
physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal
become too high, performance decreases. The process is often illustrated graphically
as a bell-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of
arousal.
 Research has found that different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal
performance. For example, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a
lower level of arousal (to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina
or persistence may be performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase
motivation).
 Because of task differences, the shape of the curve can be highly variable. For simple
or well-learned tasks, the relationship is monotonic, and performance improves as
arousal increases. For complex, unfamiliar, or difficult tasks, the relationship between
arousal and performance reverses after a point, and performance thereafter declines as
arousal increases.
 Arousal theory proposes that motivation is strongly linked to biological factors that
control reward sensitivity and goal-driven behavior.
 The reward system in the human body spurs physiological arousal, which motivates
individuals to engage in whatever behavior is necessary to relieve their arousal.
 Research shows that there tends to be an optimal level of arousal for peak
performance; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer.
 Traits like impulsivity and sensation-seeking predispose people to engage in
activities that they find physiologically arousing.
 2) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Human motives may exist in hierarchy so that we must satisfy those that are more
basic before moving on to ones that are less linked to biological needs .This point is central to
a theory of motivation proposed by Abraham Maslow (1970). His hierarchy consist of :-

1) Physiological needs –need for food, water, oxygen and step at the base of
hierarchy of needs.
2) Safety needs –needs for feeling safe, and secure in ones life .It is the desire
for security protection and freedom from danger. These feelings pertain to
the individuals desires to attain a stable and secure environment.
3) Social needs or needs to belong-include need to have friends to be loved
appreciated and to belong – to fit into a network of social relationships.
 4) Esteem needs –the needs to develop self-respect, gain the approval of
others, achieve success and admiration from others as well as to oneself.
5) Self-actualization- this involve the need for self-fulfillment .It is the desire
to become all what they wanted to be.

Maslow refers to physiological, security and social needs as deficiency needs .They
should be satisfied before higher levels .Esteem needs and actualization needs are known as
growth needs .The motivational behavior of most of us fits well in the hierarchical structure
of needs proposed by Maslow and consequently for them a need of lower order does not
appear until a need of a lower order is gratified.

3) Expectancy theory:
 Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices
among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain.
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as
personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort,
performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the
variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.
 Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if
I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

1. Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)

2. Having the right skills to do the job

3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct
information on the job)

 Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be
received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level
outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by
such things as:

1. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g. the
rules of the reward 'game'

2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

 Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For
the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not
attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might
not value offers of additional time off.

The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because
they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy) and
performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).

1) E>P expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to
the required performance level.
2) P>O expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our successful
performance will lead to certain outcomes.
4) Goal setting theory of motivation:
 Goal-setting theory of motivation states that specific and challenging goals along with
appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.
 Goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and
how much effort is required to be put in.
 In the 1960s, Edwin Locke put forward the goal-setting theory of motivation. The
theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance.
 Goal setting works best under three conditions:
1) Goal are highly specific in nature.
2) Goals are challenging, i.e., meeting it requires considerable effort.
3) Goals are perceived as attainable, that is, people believe they can actually
reach them.
 Goal setting is most successful when people receive feedback on their progress
towards meeting their goals and when people are deeply committed towards meeting
them.
Types of motivation:

1) Hunger motivation:
 It is the motivation to obtain and consume food. The hypothalamus plays an important
role in both eating and satiety (feeling of fullness). Hunger is now known to be
regulated on a short‐term basis by two clusters of cells (called nuclei) in the
hypothalamus of the brain, the ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) and the lateral
hypothalamic (LH) nuclei.
 The stimuli for hunger include stomach contractions, which signify that the stomach
is empty, a low concentration of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein and the
amount of fats stored in the body. The liver also responds to the lack of bodily fuel by
sending nerve impulses to the brain. The aroma, taste or appearance of food may also
result in a desire to eat. It may be noted that none of these alone gives you the feeling
that you are hungry. All in combination act with external factors (such as taste,
colour, by observing others eating, and the smell of food, etc.) to help you understand
that you are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food intake is regulated by a
complex feedingsatiety system located in the hypothalamus, liver, and other parts of
the body as well as the external cues available in the environment
 Lesioning (destruction) produces effects on motivated behavior that are opposite those
produced by electrical stimulation of the same nucleus. Damage to a rat's LH causes
the rat to stop eating (become aphagic) and eventually starve to death even with an
abundance of food. Electrical stimulation of the LH, however, causes it to eat.
Conversely, damage to a rat's VMH causes it to overeat (become hyperphagic). (If an
adult female rat of a species weighs 350 grams, a hyperphagic rat of the same species
can weigh over 1,000 grams.) Electrical stimulation in the same VMH nucleus
produces cessation of eating.
 Other changes can also affect hunger, such as changes in glucose (blood sugar) and
hormone levels. For example, the hormone insulin diminishes the blood glucose level,
producing hunger and thus increasing eating behavior. In addition, external cues may
affect eating behavior, for example, the sight or aroma of food or the sight of other
people eating.
2) Sexual motivation:
 One of the most powerful drives in both animals and human beings is the sex drive.
Motivation to engage in sexual activity is a very strong factor influencing human
behaviour. However, sex is far more than a biological motive.
 It is different from other primary motives (hunger, thirst) in many ways like, (a)
sexual activity is not necessary for an individual’s survival; (b) homeostasis (the
tendency of the organism as a whole to maintain constancy or to attempt to restore
equilibrium if constancy is disturbed) is not the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex
drive develops with age, etc. In case of lower animals, it depends on many
physiological conditions; in case of human beings, the sex drive is very closely
regulated biologically, sometimes it is very difficult to classify sex purely as a
biological drive.
 Physiologists suggest that intensity of the sexual urge is dependent upon chemical
substances circulating in the blood, known as sex hormones. Studies on animals as
well as human beings have mentioned that sex hormones secreted by gonads, i.e.
testes in males and the ovaries in females are responsible for sexual motivation.
Sexual motivation is also influenced by other endocrine glands, such as adrenal and
pituitary glands. Sexual drive in human beings is primarily stimulated by external
stimuli and its expression depends upon cultural learning.
 Master and Johnson’s stages of sexual activity:
1) Excitement phase: It involves physiological changes indicative of growin
sexual excitement. Eg: Penis and clitoris become enlarged and vaginal
lubrication increases.
2) Plateau phase: In this phase, the size of the penis increases till further, and the
outer third of the vagina become encroached with blood reducing its diameter.
3) Orgasmic phase: It consists of several contractions of the muscles surrounding
the genitals along with intense sensations of pleasure.
4) Resolution phase: In males orgasm is followed by a reduction in sexual and
physiological arousal. Among females either the may experience reduction in
sexual and physiological arousal, or stimulation occurs women may
experience additional orgasms.
 Different culture have different standards about sexual behaviour:
1) The age at which sexual behaviour should begin.
 2) The frequency at which it should occur.
3) Physical characteristics considered attractive or sexy.
4) The particular sexual positions and practices that are acceptable.
5) Proper time and setting for sexual relationships.
6) The persons who are appropriate partners. The number of partners the individuals
should have at one time or in succession.
3) Aggressive motivation:
 Humans engage in aggression when they seek to cause harm or pain to another
person.
 Aggression takes two forms depending on one’s motives: hostile or
instrumental. Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause
pain. In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does
not necessarily involve intent to cause pain
 Some researchers argue that aggression serves an evolutionary function. Men are
more likely than women to show aggression. From the perspective of evolutionary
psychology, human male aggression, like that in nonhuman primates, likely serves to
display dominance over other males, both to protect a mate and to perpetuate the
male’s genes.
 Sexual jealousy is part of male aggression; males endeavor to make sure their mates
are not copulating with other males, thus ensuring their own paternity of the female’s
offspring. Although aggression provides an obvious evolutionary advantage for men,
women also engage in aggression. Women typically display instrumental forms of
aggression, with their aggression serving as a means to an end. For example, women
may express their aggression covertly, for example, by communication that impairs
the social standing of another person.
 Another theory that explains one of the functions of human aggression is frustration
aggression theory. This theory states that when humans are prevented from achieving
an important goal, they become frustrated and aggressive.

4) Achievement motivation:
 Achievement motivation refers to the desire of a person to meet standards of
excellence. Need for achievement, also known as n-Ach, energises and directs
behaviour as well as influences the perception of situations.
 During the formative years of social development, children acquire achievement
motivation. The sources from which they learn it, include parents, other role models,
and socio-cultural influences. Persons high in achievement motivation tend to prefer
tasks that are moderately difficult and challenging. They have stronger-than-average
desire for feedback on their performance, that is to know how they are doing, so that
they can adjust their goals to meet the challenge.
 Through his research, McClelland identified the following characteristics of high need
achievers:
1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibilities for
performing a task or finding a solution to a problem.

2. High need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks?

3. High need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback

4. They have need for achievement for attaining personal accomplishment.

5. They look for challenging tasks.

 The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective measure intended to

evaluate a person's patterns of thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and
emotional responses to ambiguous test materials.
 In the case of the TAT, the ambiguous materials consist of a set of cards that portray
human figures in a variety of settings and situations. The subject is asked to tell the
examiner a story about each card that includes the following elements: the event
shown in the picture; what has led up to it; what the characters in the picture are
feeling and thinking; and the outcome of the event.
5) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:

Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Whenever an individual performs an

The act of being motivated by internal action or behavior because the
factors to perform certain actions and individual is affected by the eternal
behavior is called Intrinsic factors such as rewards or
Motivation. punishments, such form of motivation
is called Extrinsic Motivation.

There is neither pressure nor any sort You get rewarded as promised for the
of reward for the actions you perform actions you perform due to extrinsic
due to intrinsic motivation. motivation.

The needs or causes that lead to

intrinsic motivation are: The needs or causes that lead to
 Autonomy: the need to have complete extrinsic motivation (and not limited
control over one’s own life. to) are:
 Money
 Relatedness: the need to maintain
 Praise
companionship or connection with
others.  Competition
 Competence: the need to do be the  Threat of a punishment
best and/or succeed.
Extrinsic incentives can be used to
Intrinsic incentives are hard to figure. motivate a whole group, thus
In a class or workplace, different increasing productivity in workplace or
individuals will/might require creating a better learning environment
different approaches. in classrooms.

Extrinsic Motivation often occur

Fostering intrinsic motivation can be a instantly as soon as the subject
lengthy process, requiring special understands the perks of performing
treatment. certain actions.

Intrinsic Motivation lasts for longer

periods and often leads to higher level Extrinsic Motivation might only occur
of success. for limited period of time, and the
individual stops performing actions
after the punishment or reward is
applied.
 Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation

Example 1: A student attends guitar Example 1: A student attends guitar

classes because he wanted to. classes because his parents promise to
Whether he was inspired by double his allowance money.
some rockstars or just enjoyed the In the above example, the chances of
idea of playing in front of a crowd, the student learning guitar efficiently is
this sort of motivation is classified as quite low, as the student only seeks an
intrinsic motivation. excuse to quit. Additionally, the
In the above example, there is a student is most likely to give up
higher chance for a student to carry on playing guitar if the allowance money
playing guitar and reach stardom in isn’t doubled as promised.
the years to come.
Example 2: A group of students could
be persuaded with the promise of
Example 2: A group of students rewards, or even motivated under the
might not all get intrinsically fear of punishment. Regardless of the
motivated, which could hamper class matter of motivation, the whole class
productivity. would perform well increasing the
overall productivity.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

 Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal
satisfaction that they bring. According to Deci (1971), these behaviors are defined as
ones for which the reward is the satisfaction of performing the activity itself. Intrinsic
motivation thus represents engagement in an activity for its own sake. For example, if
you are in college because you enjoy learning new things and expanding your
knowledge, you are intrinsically motivated to be there.
 Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand, are performed in order to
receive something from others or avoid certain negative outcomes. Theorists define
extrinsic motivation as ―engaging in an activity to obtain an outcome that is separable
from the activity itself‖ (deCharms, 1968; Lepper & Greene, 1978). The extrinsic
motivator is outside of, and acts on, the individual. Rewards—such as a job
promotion, money, a sticker, or candy—are good examples of extrinsic motivators.
Social and emotional incentives like praise and attention are also extrinsic motivators
since they are bestowed on the individual by another person.
 Role of instincts
 Every organism is born with different biological traits and tendencies in order to help
them survive. These aren’t learned or experienced behaviors, rather patterns of
behavior that occur naturally and are goal-directed. These patterns of behavior are
referred to as instincts, and the theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors.
 Instincts are goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the result of
learning or experience.
 Psychologist William McDougall was one of the first to write about the instinct
theory of motivation. He suggested that instinctive behavior was composed of three
essential elements: perception, behavior, and emotion. He also outlined 18 different
instincts that included curiosity, maternal instinct, laughter, comfort, sex, and food-
seeking.
 Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud used a broad view of motivation and suggested the human
behavior was driven by two key forces: the life and death
instincts. Psychologist William James, on the other hand, identified a number of
instincts that he believed were essential for survival. These included such things as
fear, anger, love, shame, and cleanliness.
 The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically based. We
engage in certain behaviors because they aid in survival.
 In other words, the behavior must occur naturally and automatically in all organisms
of that species. For example, infants have an innate rooting reflex that leads them to
root for and suck on a nipple. This behavior is unlearned and occurs naturally in all
human infants.