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 MA CO
JOR VER
SQ S A
L D LL
ATA
BA

SQL SES

PERFORMANCE
EXPLAINED
ENGLISH EDITION

EVERYTHING DEVELOPERS NEED TO KNOW ABOUT SQL PERFORMANCE

MARKUS WINAND
License Agreement
This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may
not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share
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and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of
the author.
Publisher:
Markus Winand

Maderspergerstasse 1-3/9/11
1160 Wien
AUSTRIA
<[email protected]>

Copyright © 2012 Markus Winand

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored,

or transmitted in any form or by any means —electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise — without the prior consent of the
publisher.

Many of the names used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their

products are trademarked. Wherever such designations appear in this book,
and we were aware of a trademark claim, the names have been printed in
all caps or initial caps.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the
publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors and omissions, or
for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

The book solely reflects the author’s views. The database vendors men-
tioned have neither supported the work financially nor verified the content.

DGS - Druck- u. Graphikservice GmbH — Wien — Austria

Cover design:
tomasio.design — Mag. Thomas Weninger — Wien — Austria

Cover photo:
Brian Arnold — Turriff — UK

Copy editor:
Nathan Ingvalson — Graz — Austria

2014-08-26
SQL Performance Explained

Everything developers need to

know about SQL performance

Markus Winand
Vienna, Austria
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................ vi

1. Anatomy of an Index ...................................................................... 1

The Index Leaf Nodes .................................................................. 2
The Search Tree (B-Tree) .............................................................. 4
Slow Indexes, Part I .................................................................... 6

2. The Where Clause ......................................................................... 9

The Equality Operator .................................................................. 9
Primary Keys ....................................................................... 10
Concatenated Indexes .......................................................... 12
Slow Indexes, Part II ............................................................ 18
Functions .................................................................................. 24
Case-Insensitive Search Using UPPER or LOWER .......................... 24
User-Defined Functions ........................................................ 29
Over-Indexing ...................................................................... 31
Parameterized Queries ............................................................... 32
Searching for Ranges ................................................................. 39
Greater, Less and BETWEEN ..................................................... 39
Indexing LIKE Filters ............................................................. 45
Index Merge ........................................................................ 49
Partial Indexes ........................................................................... 51
NULL in the Oracle Database ....................................................... 53
Indexing NULL ....................................................................... 54
NOT NULL Constraints ............................................................ 56
Emulating Partial Indexes ..................................................... 60
Obfuscated Conditions ............................................................... 62
Date Types .......................................................................... 62
Numeric Strings .................................................................. 68
Combining Columns ............................................................ 70
Smart Logic ......................................................................... 72
Math .................................................................................. 77

iv
 SQL Performance Explained

3. Performance and Scalability ......................................................... 79

Performance Impacts of Data Volume ......................................... 80
Performance Impacts of System Load .......................................... 85
Response Time and Throughput ................................................. 87

4. The Join Operation ....................................................................... 91

Nested Loops ............................................................................ 92
Hash Join ................................................................................. 101
Sort Merge .............................................................................. 109

5. Clustering Data ........................................................................... 111

Index Filter Predicates Used Intentionally ................................... 112
Index-Only Scan ........................................................................ 116
Index-Organized Tables ............................................................. 122

6. Sorting and Grouping ................................................................. 129

Indexing Order By .................................................................... 130
Indexing ASC, DESC and NULLS FIRST/LAST ...................................... 134
Indexing Group By .................................................................... 139

7. Partial Results ............................................................................ 143

Querying Top-N Rows ............................................................... 143
Paging Through Results ............................................................ 147
Using Window Functions for Pagination .................................... 156

8. Modifying Data .......................................................................... 159

Insert ...................................................................................... 159
Delete ...................................................................................... 162
Update .................................................................................... 163

A. Execution Plans .......................................................................... 165

Oracle Database ....................................................................... 166
PostgreSQL ............................................................................... 172
SQL Server ............................................................................... 180
MySQL ..................................................................................... 188

Index ............................................................................................. 193

v
Preface

Developers Need to Index

SQL performance problems are as old as SQL itself— some might even say
that SQL is inherently slow. Although this might have been true in the early
days of SQL, it is definitely not true anymore. Nevertheless SQL performance
problems are still commonplace. How does this happen?

The SQL language is perhaps the most successful fourth-generation

programming language (4GL). Its main benefit is the capability to separate
“what” and “how”. An SQL statement is a straight description what is needed
without instructions as to how to get it done. Consider the following
example:

SELECT date_of_birth
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'WINAND'

The SQL query reads like an English sentence that explains the requested
data. Writing SQL statements generally does not require any knowledge
about inner workings of the database or the storage system (such as disks,
files, etc.). There is no need to tell the database which files to open or how
to find the requested rows. Many developers have years of SQL experience
yet they know very little about the processing that happens in the database.

The separation of concerns — what is needed versus how to get it — works

remarkably well in SQL, but it is still not perfect. The abstraction reaches
its limits when it comes to performance: the author of an SQL statement
by definition does not care how the database executes the statement.
Consequently, the author is not responsible for slow execution. However,
experience proves the opposite; i.e., the author must know a little bit about
the database to prevent performance problems.

It turns out that the only thing developers need to learn is how to index.
Database indexing is, in fact, a development task. That is because the
most important information for proper indexing is not the storage system
configuration or the hardware setup. The most important information for
indexing is how the application queries the data. This knowledge —about

vi
 Preface: Developers Need to Index

the access path— is not very accessible to database administrators (DBAs) or

external consultants. Quite some time is needed to gather this information
through reverse engineering of the application: development, on the other
hand, has that information anyway.

This book covers everything developers need to know about indexes — and
nothing more. To be more precise, the book covers the most important
index type only: the B-tree index.

The B-tree index works almost identically in many databases. The book only
uses the terminology of the Oracle® database, but the principles apply to
other databases as well. Side notes provide relevant information for MySQL,
PostgreSQL and SQL Server®.

The structure of the book is tailor-made for developers; most chapters

correspond to a particular part of an SQL statement.

CHAPTER 1 - Anatomy of an Index

The first chapter is the only one that doesn’t cover SQL specifically; it
is about the fundamental structure of an index. An understanding of
the index structure is essential to following the later chapters — don’t
skip this!

Although the chapter is rather short —only about eight pages —

after working through the chapter you will already understand the
phenomenon of slow indexes.

CHAPTER 2 - The Where Clause

This is where we pull out all the stops. This chapter explains all aspects
of the where clause, from very simple single column lookups to complex
clauses for ranges and special cases such as LIKE.

This chapter makes up the main body of the book. Once you learn to
use these techniques, you will write much faster SQL.

CHAPTER 3 - Performance and Scalability

This chapter is a little digression about performance measurements
and database scalability. See why adding hardware is not the best
solution to slow queries.

CHAPTER 4 - The Join Operation

Back to SQL: here you will find an explanation of how to use indexes
to perform a fast table join.

vii
 Preface: Developers Need to Index

CHAPTER 5 - Clustering Data

Have you ever wondered if there is any difference between selecting a
single column or all columns? Here is the answer —along with a trick
to get even better performance.

CHAPTER 6 - Sorting and Grouping

Even order by and group by can use indexes.

CHAPTER 7 - Partial Results

This chapter explains how to benefit from a “pipelined” execution if
you don’t need the full result set.

CHAPTER 8 - Insert, Delete and Update

How do indexes affect write performance? Indexes don’t come for
free — use them wisely!

APPENDIX A - Execution Plans

Asking the database how it executes a statement.

viii
Chapter 1

Anatomy of an Index

“An index makes the query fast” is the most basic explanation of an index I
have ever seen. Although it describes the most important aspect of an index
very well, it is —unfortunately—not sufficient for this book. This chapter
describes the index structure in a less superficial way but doesn’t dive too
deeply into details. It provides just enough insight for one to understand
the SQL performance aspects discussed throughout the book.

An index is a distinct structure in the database that is built using the

create index statement. It requires its own disk space and holds a copy
of the indexed table data. That means that an index is pure redundancy.
Creating an index does not change the table data; it just creates a new data
structure that refers to the table. A database index is, after all, very much
like the index at the end of a book: it occupies its own space, it is highly
redundant, and it refers to the actual information stored in a different
place.

Clustered Indexes
SQL Server and MySQL (using InnoDB) take a broader view of what
“index” means. They refer to tables that consist of the index structure
only as clustered indexes. These tables are called Index-Organized
Tables (IOT) in the Oracle database.
Chapter 5, “Clustering Data”, describes them in more detail and
explains their advantages and disadvantages.

Searching in a database index is like searching in a printed telephone

directory. The key concept is that all entries are arranged in a well-defined
order. Finding data in an ordered data set is fast and easy because the sort
order determines each entries position.

1
 Chapter 1: Anatomy of an Index

A database index is, however, more complex than a printed directory

because it undergoes constant change. Updating a printed directory for
every change is impossible for the simple reason that there is no space
between existing entries to add new ones. A printed directory bypasses this
problem by only handling the accumulated updates with the next printing.
An SQL database cannot wait that long. It must process insert, delete and
update statements immediately, keeping the index order without moving
large amounts of data.

The database combines two data structures to meet the challenge: a doubly
linked list and a search tree. These two structures explain most of the
database’s performance characteristics.

The Index Leaf Nodes

The primary purpose of an index is to provide an ordered representation of
the indexed data. It is, however, not possible to store the data sequentially
because an insert statement would need to move the following entries to
make room for the new one. Moving large amounts of data is very time-
consuming so the insert statement would be very slow. The solution to
the problem is to establish a logical order that is independent of physical
order in memory.

The logical order is established via a doubly linked list. Every node has links
to two neighboring entries, very much like a chain. New nodes are inserted
between two existing nodes by updating their links to refer to the new
node. The physical location of the new node doesn’t matter because the
doubly linked list maintains the logical order.

The data structure is called a doubly linked list because each node refers
to the preceding and the following node. It enables the database to read
the index forwards or backwards as needed. It is thus possible to insert
new entries without moving large amounts of data—it just needs to change
some pointers.

Doubly linked lists are also used for collections (containers) in many
programming languages.

2
 The Index Leaf Nodes

Programming Language Name

Java java.util.LinkedList
.NET Framework System.Collections.Generic.LinkedList
C++ std::list

Databases use doubly linked lists to connect the so-called index leaf nodes.
Each leaf node is stored in a database block or page; that is, the database’s
smallest storage unit. All index blocks are of the same size —typically a few
kilobytes. The database uses the space in each block to the extent possible
and stores as many index entries as possible in each block. That means
that the index order is maintained on two different levels: the index entries
within each leaf node, and the leaf nodes among each other using a doubly
linked list.

Figure 1.1. Index Leaf Nodes and Corresponding Table Data

Index Leaf Nodes Table
(sort ed) (not sort ed)
2

lu 1
lu 2
lu 3

4
mn

co mn
co mn
co mn
mn
D
lu

WI

lu
co

RO

co

11 3C AF A 34 1 2
13 F3 91 A 27 5 9
18 6F B2
A 39 2 5
X 21 7 2
21 2C 50
27 0F 1B A 11 1 6
27 52 55
A 35 8 3
X 27 3 2
34 0D 1E
35 44 53 A 18 3 6
39 24 5D A 13 7 4

Figure 1.1 illustrates the index leaf nodes and their connection to the table
data. Each index entry consists of the indexed columns (the key, column 2)
and refers to the corresponding table row (via ROWID or RID). Unlike the
index, the table data is stored in a heap structure and is not sorted at all.
There is neither a relationship between the rows stored in the same table
block nor is there any connection between the blocks.

3
 Chapter 1: Anatomy of an Index

The Search Tree (B-Tree)

The index leaf nodes are stored in an arbitrary order —the position on the
disk does not correspond to the logical position according to the index
order. It is like a telephone directory with shuffled pages. If you search
for “Smith” but first open the directory at “Robinson”, it is by no means
granted that Smith follows Robinson. A database needs a second structure
to find the entry among the shuffled pages quickly: a balanced search tree—
in short: the B-tree.

Figure 1.2. B-tree Structure

es
Branch Node Leaf Nodes

od

es
e
N
od

od
ch
N

N
40 4A 1B

an
t

af
o
Ro

Le
Br
43 9F 71
46 A2 D2 11 3C AF
13 F3 91
18 6F B2

21 2C 50
18 27 0F 1B
27 27 52 55
39

46 8B 1C 34 0D 1E
35 44 53
39 24 5D

53 A0 A1 40 4A 1B
43 9F 71
53 0D 79 46 A2 D2

46 46 8B 1C
53 A0 A1
53 0D 79

53 39
46
53
57 55 9C F6

57 55 9C F6 83
98
83 57 B1 C1
57 50 29

83 57 B1 C1 67 C4 6B
83 FF 9D
83 AF E9

57 50 29 84 80 64
86 4C 2F
88 06 5B

89 6A 3E
88 90 7D 9A
94 94 36 D4
67 C4 6B 98

95 EA 37
98 5E B2
83 FF 9D 98 D8 4F

83 AF E9

Figure 1.2 shows an example index with 30 entries. The doubly linked list
establishes the logical order between the leaf nodes. The root and branch
nodes support quick searching among the leaf nodes.

The figure highlights a branch node and the leaf nodes it refers to. Each
branch node entry corresponds to the biggest value in the respective leaf
node. That is, 46 in the first leaf node so that the first branch node entry
is also 46. The same is true for the other leaf nodes so that in the end the

4
 The Search Tree (B-Tree)

branch node has the values 46, 53, 57 and 83. According to this scheme, a
branch layer is built up until all the leaf nodes are covered by a branch node.

The next layer is built similarly, but on top of the first branch node level.
The procedure repeats until all keys fit into a single node, the root node.
The structure is a balanced search tree because the tree depth is equal at
every position; the distance between root node and leaf nodes is the same
everywhere.

Note
A B-tree is a balanced tree—not a binary tree.

Once created, the database maintains the index automatically. It applies

every insert, delete and update to the index and keeps the tree in balance,
thus causing maintenance overhead for write operations. Chapter 8,
“Modifying Data”, explains this in more detail.

Figure 1.3. B-Tree Traversal

46 8B 1C
53 A0 A1
46 53 0D 79
39
53
83
57
98 55 9C F6
83
57 B1 C1
57 50 29

Figure 1.3 shows an index fragment to illustrate a search for the key “57”.
The tree traversal starts at the root node on the left-hand side. Each entry
is processed in ascending order until a value is greater than or equal to (>=)
the search term (57). In the figure it is the entry 83. The database follows
the reference to the corresponding branch node and repeats the procedure
until the tree traversal reaches a leaf node.

Important
The B-tree enables the database to find a leaf node quickly.

5
 Chapter 1: Anatomy of an Index

The tree traversal is a very efficient operation—so efficient that I refer to it

as the first power of indexing. It works almost instantly—even on a huge data
set. That is primarily because of the tree balance, which allows accessing
all elements with the same number of steps, and secondly because of the
logarithmic growth of the tree depth. That means that the tree depth grows
very slowly compared to the number of leaf nodes. Real world indexes with
millions of records have a tree depth of four or five. A tree depth of six is
hardly ever seen. The box “Logarithmic Scalability” describes this in more
detail.

Slow Indexes, Part I

Despite the efficiency of the tree traversal, there are still cases where an
index lookup doesn’t work as fast as expected. This contradiction has fueled
the myth of the “degenerated index” for a long time. The myth proclaims
an index rebuild as the miracle solution. The real reason trivial statements
can be slow —even when using an index —can be explained on the basis of
the previous sections.

The first ingredient for a slow index lookup is the leaf node chain. Consider
the search for “57” in Figure 1.3 again. There are obviously two matching
entries in the index. At least two entries are the same, to be more precise:
the next leaf node could have further entries for “57”. The database must
read the next leaf node to see if there are any more matching entries. That
means that an index lookup not only needs to perform the tree traversal,
it also needs to follow the leaf node chain.

The second ingredient for a slow index lookup is accessing the table.
Even a single leaf node might contain many hits — often hundreds. The
corresponding table data is usually scattered across many table blocks (see
Figure 1.1, “Index Leaf Nodes and Corresponding Table Data”). That means
that there is an additional table access for each hit.

An index lookup requires three steps: (1) the tree traversal; (2) following the
leaf node chain; (3) fetching the table data. The tree traversal is the only
step that has an upper bound for the number of accessed blocks—the index
depth. The other two steps might need to access many blocks—they cause
a slow index lookup.

6
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