WEAR

ELSEVIER Wear 197 (1996) 45-55

Micromechanisms of tool wear in machining free cutting steels

K. Ramanujachar, S.V. Subramanian
Departmentof Materials Scienceand Engineering. McMasterUniversity. Hamilton. Ontario. Canada
Received 21 September1994; accepted 5 October 1995

Abstract

A quantitative investigation of tool crater wear was carried out in free cutting steels with and without lead addition (commercial grade
AISI 12L 14 and AISI 1215 respecfively ) at moderately high cutting speeds ( 140-200 m min - I ) using cemented carbide cutting tools. Crater
wear was quantitatively measured by determining the amount of tungsten carried into the chips using instrumental neutron activation analysis.
The bulk of tungsten in the chips occurs as soluble tungsten dissolved in the steel matrix rather than as tungsten carbide confirming that
dissolution of the tool into the workpiece is the dominant mechanism of tool crater wear. Experimental results have confirmed that lead
decreases the cutting force and the contact length but is ineffective in suppressing tool dissolution wear.
Since dissolution of the tool occurs by a diffusion mechanism, it should be possible to design a diffusion barrier at the tool-chip interface
to suppress dissolution wear. It is demonstrated that deformable oxide inclusions (CaO--AI203-2SiO2) engineered into the workpiece (AIS!
1215 IE) form a glassy layer at the tool-chip interface that suppresses dissolution wear. Alternatively a HfN coating pot on the tool acts as
an effective diffusion barrier, as the solubility of HfN is seven orders of magnitude ( 10 million times) less than that of tungsten carbide in
the austenite phase of the steel at the tool-chip interface temperature. Thus, inclusion engineering of the workpiece and coating of the tool
are identified as two viable and attractive options to replace lead in free cutting steels. Theoretical analysis of the above experimental
observations constitutes the subject of Section 4.
The effect of tribology of seizure occurring at higher cutting speeds on the tool-chip interface temperature is analysed using finite element
modelling. The shear flow of the chip material under the compressive stress of the seized region is described using Bowden and Tabor's
equation. The effect of temperature distribution of the seized region on the di ffusional transport is analysed. A comparison of the experimentally
measured tungsten transported to the chip with the theoretical prediction suggests that an enhanced diffusion operates at the tool-chip in~fface.
High diffusivity paths contribute to an enhancement in the diffusion coefficient that is two orders of magnitude greater than the lattice diffusion
coefficient.

Keywords: Tool wear;Free cutting steels; Diffusionalwear; Inclusionengineering;Coating; Machinability

1. Introduction angle [ 1]. At low cutting speeds the tribology operating at

the tool-chip interface is one of sliding. This point has been
confirmed by Doyle and Tabor [2]. In their work. planing
A quantitative understanding of the micromechanisms of
experiments were conducted with transparent sapphire tools
tool crater wear and chip formation during the machining of
free cutting steels is essential in order to design non-toxic on copper, indium, aluminium and lead at cutting speeds
free cutting steels as a replacement for toxic leaded free cut- ranging from 5 mm s - t to 500 mm s - t. Relative motion
ting steels. The functional role of lead in free cutting steels between the chip and the tool was inferred. At the high cutting
used at low cutting speed with high speed steel tools is well speeds used in CNC machining with carbide tools, the tri-
established [ 1 ]. Lead inclusions lower the critical accumu- bology of seizure operates at the tool-chip interface [3].
lated damage that aids ductile fracture in chip formation. At However the micromechanisms of tool wear are not well
low cutting speeds, the tribology of sliding wear operates at established. The objective of this work is to elucidate the
the 'tool-chip interface, where lead lowers the tool-chip inter- micromechanisms of tool wear in machining free cutting
face friction. Shaw et al. have carried out extensive research steels with and without lead during moderately high curing
over the years on free cutting steels. They have shown that speeds using cemented carbide cutting tools and to identify
lead lowers the cutting force and the tool-chip contact length. design strategies to eliminate lead in free cutting steels.
Lead forms a fluid layer at the tool-chip interface that lowers In this work the micromechanisms of tool crater wear arc
the coefficient of friction. Lead increases the shear plane investigated quantitatively during the machining o.~an AISI

0043.16481961515.00 © 1996ElsevierScience S.A. All rightsreserved

SSD10043-1648(95)06810-4
 K. Ramanujachar,S. V. SubramanianI Wear197 (1996) 45-55

12L14 and AISI 1215 grades of free cutting steels using 2.2. Neutron activation analysis
tungsten carbide tool at various cutting speeds. The total
amount of tungsten transported from the tool to the chips is Tool crater wear was quantitatively measured by deter-
determined by neutron activation analysis. The area of tool- mining the tungsten content of the chips generated during
chip contact was experimentally determined as a function of machining, using neutron activation analysis. All the chips
cutting speed and the temperature at the tool--chip interface generated at a given cutting speed for a given time were
was derived from the cutting force measurements. The collected and irradiated in a neutron flux of 10t2 neu-
amount of tungsten transported by diffusion into the chip for trons c m - 2 s - ~..The total amount of tungsten carried into the
the measured tool-chip contact area and tool--chip interface chips was determined using standards of known composition.
temperature derived from cutting force measurement was The total amount of tungsten is made up of tungsten as atomic
compared with the total amount of tungsten carried into the tungsten and tungsten as tungsten carbide. The chips were
chlps. By choosing a coating (HfN) which has the least then dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid and the
ti',ermodynamic potential for dissolution into the workpiece, tungsten carbide retained in the undissolved residue deter-
it is shown that the amount of dissolution wear can be reduced mined. The tungsten in solution in the iron matrix was taken
drastically. It is demonstrated that deformable oxide inclu- as the difference between the total tungsten in the chips and
sions can be engineered into free cutting steels that suppress the tungsten tied up as tungsten carbide [4].
dissolution crater wear. Theoretical analyses are carried out
1. to relate the contact length to parameters relating to the 2.3. Force measurements
mechanics of metal cutting and material parameters of the
workpiece, Forces exerted on the tool were measured in order to cal-
2. to predict the tool--chip int.~rface temperature of the seized culate the t o o l - chip interface temperatures. Cutting force,
region using thermal finite element modelling, and feed force and radial force measurements were carried out
3. to predict the diffusional transport of tungsten from the using a piezoelectric dynamometer. The signals acquired
tool across the tool--chip interface. from the dynamometer were processed using a computer.

2.4. Confactareameasurements

2. Experimental Tool - chip contact areas for increasing cutting durations

were measured from photographs of the tool tips. A magni-
fication of 50 X was used. The contact length was determined
2.1. Cutting conditions forfree cutting steels AlSl l2Ll4 from these photographs.
andAlS11215 Fig. 1 shows a typical optical micrograph of the tool rake
face in which the contact length can be clearly distinguished.
The experimental programme involved a comparative Optical micrographs were used to measure the stick region
study of three free cutting steels: AISI 12L14 (leaded free of the contact length involving seizure.
cutting steel), and AISI 1215 (non-leaded free cutting
steel), AISI 1215 IE ( deformable oxide inclusion engineered
non - leaded free cutting steel). The cutting tool is cemented
tungsten carbide K-i tool (85% WC, 4% TaC-NbC, 11%
Co) in the uncoated and HfN coated condition. The compo-
sition of these steels used in the study are summarised in
Table 1.
The metal cutting conditions used in this study are:
depth of cut= 1.27 mm, feed rate=0.2 mm rev-~, rake
angle = + 5 °, cutting speed varied from 140 to 200 m min - ~,
triangular insert (Kennametal TPG 432), clearance
angle= 11°, nose radius =0.794 mm ( 1/32 in), no coolant
used.

Table I
Compositionof A.I.S.I. 12LI4,A.I.S.I. 1215,inclusionengineeredsteel
Grade C (%) M n (%) P (%) S (%) Si (%) Pb (%)

12L14 0.07 1.05 0.08 0.3 0.003 0.15

1215 0.08 0.95 0.08 0.3 0.006 0
1215 I.E. 0.096 1.08 0.06 0.32 0.18 0 Fig. I.An opticalmicrograph of rake face of tool,showing the seized region
of contact length.
 K. Ramanujachar,S.V. Subramanian/ Wear197 (1996)45-55

Table 2
Neutron activationanalysisof tungstenin chips generatedduring machiningfree cuttingsteels with cementedcarbidetools

Grade Tool Speed (m rain-t ) W" total (ppm) W as WC t, (ppm) SolubleW ~ (ppm)

12LI4 KI 160 6.3+0.1 0.31 5.99

12LI4 KI 200 7.1 4-0.1 0.16 6.94
1215 KI 160 6.8 4-0.1 0.27 6.53
1215 KI 200 7.3 ::1:0. I 0.22 7.08
1215LE KI 160 0 0 0
12151.E KI 200 1.4+ .25 0.2 i.2
1215 KI CHfN 160 0.7 4-.2
1215 KI CHfN 200 1.64-.3

a Crater wear.
b Mechanicalwear.
c Chemicalwear.

Percentagemechanicaland chemicalwear

Grade Tool Speed Percent Percent

( m rain- : ) chemical mechanical

12L14 K-I 160 95 5

12L14 K-I 200 98 2 p,
1215 K-I 160 96 4
1215 K-I 200 97 3 *~
1215 I.E. K-I 200 86 14 ~ ~l
A~,.t~14' .,um.121efAlSl-121Sa)'l t~l~V6Comd toc~j
[mToT~wm~w mwc ]
3. Results

WEAR' WEAR WEAR

3.1. Experimental results on free cutting steels (AISI
Fig. 2. The bar chart for each steel shows the incw.asein total tungsten
12L14, AIS! 1215,1215 IE) concentration (crater wear), tungsten dissolved (dissol,tion wear), and
tungsten present as WC (mechanical wear) in the chip during machining
Table 2 summarizes tungsten content of the chips collected the steel with K-I tool at a cuttingspeed of 160 m ~in - t The results from
over a duration of 15 s at two cutting speeds (160 and neutron activationa:talysiscomparetool wear for the ~ of leaded ( AISI
121.14) and non-lcaded (AISI 1215), inclusion engineered AIS! 1215
200 m m i n - ~) for unleaded steel (AISI 1215), leaded steel (I.E.) d~,ring machiningwith uncunled K-I tool and a Hff~ co~ed tool
(AISI 12L!4) and inclusion engineered steel ( 1215 IE). Of during machiningAIS11215.
the total tungten picked up by the chip, the amount oftangsten
contributed by toogten carbide was quantitatively determined The effect of HfN coating on the tool on machining unleaded
and the difference is taken as the dissolved amount that is AISI 1215 on tool wear as measured by tungsten concentra-
atomically transported from the tool into the chip. The amount tion in the chip is shown for comparison. Fig. 3 compares the
of tungten dissolved in the chip is taken as a quantitative neutron activation results for the above case~ at a higher
measure of chemical wear. The amount of tungsten present cutting speed of 200 m r a i n - :. Clearly chemical or dissolu-
as tungsten carbide particles is considered as a quantitative tion wear dominates at both cutting speeds in both leaded and
measure of physical or mechanical wear. Table 3 summarises unleaded steel, However there is a ~.-astic reduction in tool
the percentage mechanical and chemical wear for uncoated dissolution wear both in the case of inclusion engineered steel
cemented carbide tool during the machining of three free- and coated tool. Clearly engineering deformable oxide inclu-
cutting steels. Clearly the chemical wear dominates over sions into the work piece is very effective in reducing tool
mechanical wear in each case, constituting in excess of g5% crater wear. Coating the tool with Ht'N is also very effective
of wear. Cutting experiments were performed with uncoated in suppressing dissolution wear.
cemented carbide K-1 tools and with HtN coated K-I tools Table 4 summarizes the neutron activation analysis results
and the results are compared. Fig. 2 is a bar chart that shows for H i content of AISI (1215) steel chips collected over a
the increase in total tungsten concentration in the chip (total duration of i S s at two cutting speeds (160 and
crater wear), tungsten dissolved in the chip (chemical or 200 m rain- t).
dissolution wear) and tungsten present as WC (mechanical Table 5 summarizes experimental data for free cutting
wear) in the chip during machining three free cutting steels steels comprising of cutting force, contact length, the shep,r
with uncoated tungsten carbide ( K - I ) tool at 160 m rain- J. angle, the ratio of feed force to cutting force and the maximum
 K. Ramanujachar.5.1/.Subramanian/ Wear 197 (1996)45-5.5

;i 200 M/MIN lance over the seized contact length obtained from the finite
element analysis outlined in Appendix B.

4. D i s c u s s i o n

4. !. Theoretical analysis

In order to understand the functional role of lead as a free

cutting additive, it is essential to reach a quantitative under-
A
I with HfN Coated tool) standing of the following effects noted in free cutting steels
imToT~.wm ~ w rowe I due to lead addition:
1. the reduction of cutting forces during the machining of
c~Nn o,~L~nON~EC.A.,eAt leaded steel;
WEAR WEAR WEAR
Fig. 3. The bar chart for each steel shows the increase in total W (crater 2. reduction of contact lengths during the machining of
wear), W dissolved (dissolutionwear) and W productas WC (mechanical leaded steel;
wear) in the chip during machiningthe steel with K-I tool at a cuttingspeed 3. marginal reduction of the diffusional crater wear during
of 200 m rain- 1.The results from neutron activationanalysiscomparetool machining with carbide tools at raoderately high cutting
wear for the cases of leaded (A1SI 12LI4) and non-leaded (AISI 1215),
inclusionengineeredA1SI 1215 (I.E.) during machiningwith uncoatedK- speeds.
I tool and a Ht'N coated tool during machiningAISI 1215.
4.1.1. Contact lengths
Table 4 Various models for the contact length have been proposed,
Neutron activation analysis of Hf in chips during machiningA.I.S.I 1215 for example, by Abuladze [6], Lee and Shaffer [7], Thom-
steel with HfN coated cementedcarbidetool
sen and Kobayashi [8]. All these models are applicable at
Grade Tool Speed Concentration
3f Hf low cutting speeds, where the tribology of sliding operates at
( m rain- ~) (ppm) the tool-chip interface. But, at higher cutting speeds, where
the tribology of seizure occurs, these models are not appli-
1215 K-I + Hfl~ 160 0.414-0.1 cable. The chip material of the seized region in the secondary
1215 K-I + HfN 200 0.61 4-0.51
shear zone is sheared under the action of compressive and
shear forces acting on the rake face of the tool. Owing to the
temperature at the t o o l - c h i p interface calculated using large normal forces, the apparent contact area approaches the
Boothroyd's model [5]. For comparison, theoretically pre- real contact area. In their analysis of junction growth during
dicted contact lengths are also included in Table 5. Fig. 4 is metallic friction Bowden and Tabor [9] used an equation
a schematic of elemental configuration used for thermal finite first developed by Nadai [ 10] to relate the normal and shear
element .malysis. Fig. 5 is a typical temperature distribution stresses to the material flow stress in a seizure situation. This
along the t o o l - chip interface expressed as fractional dis- equation:

Table 5
Cuttingforce, contactlength and shear planeangle measurementson free cuttingsteelsalongwith the predictedcontactlengthand maximumtool.chip interface
temperature

Grade Speed Tool Fc (N) Xc (measured) Xc (predicted) ~ (tad) Fr/F~ Maximum

(m rain- ~) (ram) (ram) temperature(K)

1215 '.40 K-I 547 0.84 0.77 0.41 0.62 1136

1215 160 K-I 538 0.85 0.78 0.43 0.60 1155
1215 180 K-I 530 0.84 0.76 0.44 0.57 ! 196
1215 180 K-I 530 0.84 0.76 0A4 0.57 1196
1215 200 K-I 518 0.94 0.85 0.45 0.55 1216
12LI4 140 K-I 397 0.71 0.64 0.51 0.58 1036
12LI4 160 K-I 393 0.74 0.67 0.51 0.57 1067
12LI4 180 K-I 367 0.74 0.67 0.51 0.57 1101
12LI4 200 K-I 357 0.79 0.71 0.51 0.55 1138
1215 160 K-I 440 0.612 0.55 0.48 0.50 1134
(I.E.)
1215 200 K-I 438 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.52 1167
(I.E.)
1215 1(30 KI + Hfi'q 477 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.53 1015
1215 200 KI + HfN 477 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.56 1070
 K. Ramanujachar,S. V. Subramanian/ Wear 197(1996)45-55 49

2
I o '~=~" r-
.~ X =
7~Ip
: o cos a tl see(4'- a) cosec 4' (2)
= l/g(a,k)- (l12Vr3) sin ~cos(4'-a)
o s~,, ,~ :~. ~ . _ . ~
where
~-p== shear flow stress of the chip material in the primary
shear zone, a = rake angle, 4'ffi shear plane angle, t t ffifeed,
Po fficompressive flow stress of chip material in the secondary
shear zone, k = feed force/cutting force and g ( a , k ) is given
by
g(cz,k) = 1/2 sin2a + 1 + 2 k 2 cos2a + k2 + 2k sin(2a)
(3a)
-6 0
O.OO0! 0.000~' 0.0003 0.0004 O.O00S 0.0006 0.0007 Since the work of shear in the primary shear zone consti-
X--CO~N
Fig. 4. Typicalelementalconfigurationused in the FEM. The insetshows tutes in excess of 80% of the total work done even under
the domainwith respectto the secondaryshearzone. conditions of seizure, it is instructive to evaluate the contact
length by approximating the work done as that of the primary
1400.0 shear zone. The approximation leads to the following sim-
1800.0- plified expression, given by
1200.0-
ep~cos a ttg(a,k)
1100.0 (3b)
X~=po c o s ( 4 ' - a ) sin 4'
g® ~ooo.o
g00.0 Table 5 shows a good agreement between the predicted
600.0 and measured values of contact lengths. This approach in
spite of the simplifying assumptions involved serves as the
~" 7oo.o
basis for identifying the key parameters that influence contact
600.0
length. According to Eq. (3), the contact length Xc:
600.0 1. increases with the feed tt;
,~O0.O 0:1 0:2 0:~ 0:4 O:S O:S O;7 O:S 0:0 2. decreases with the ratio feed force/cutting force (k); and
l~r~.bnd did.z~e. 3. decreases with the increase in the shear plane angle.
Fig.5. Thetemperaturedistributionalongthetool- chipinterfacecalculated • The k valueis lower in the case of leaded steel. Additionally
usingFEManalysisduringmachiningan AI$11215withuncoatedK-I tool
at a cuttingspeedof 160 m min- =. the value of the shear plane angle, 4' is larger while machining
leaded steel. Consequently the reduction in contact length
that occurs while machining leaded steel is linked to the
p2 + 3S2= p2o (1) reduction in the value ofk and the increase in the value oftbe
shear plane angle, 4', Physically k can be considered analo-
Where P = normal stress, S = shear stress, Po = material flow
gous to a coefficient of friction in a simple sliding situation.
stress in compression, is used to describe the plastic flow in
The cutting forces in the case of leaded steel are reduced with
the secondary shear zone and is the starting point of the
analysis carried out in Appendix A. It should be noted that respect to the unleaded steel as a result of the reduction in the
while the forces are derived with a flow rule, the contact contact length, X=.
The geometry of the secondary shear zone is roughly tri-
length is derived by calculating the total work, which is the
angular in shape with its base as the seized contact length and
sum of the work done in the primary shear zone and the work
its height as the secondary shear zone thickness. The dimen-
done in the secondary shear zone. The experimentally deter-
sions of this triangle are established from optical metallog-
mined shear plane angle was however used for the tempera-
raphy. For this triangular geometry of secondary shear zone,
ture calculations. Thus both the mechanics of tool-chip
a first principles thermal finite element analysis is carried out
contact as well as the energetics of metal cutting have been
to establish tool-chip interface temperature.
taken into consideration in this analysis. At the high cutting
speeds that have been used in this study the single shear plane
theory of Merchant is considered to be a good approximation 4.1,2. Thermalfmiteelementanalysisofthesecondaryshear
and strain rates on this plane are used in calculating the plastic ~.one
work in the primary shear plane [ 11,12]. It should be noted In order to calculate theoretically the temperature at the
that shear occurs over a narrow zone but in the theoretical tool-chip interface we have to solve the partial differential
analysis, the thickness of this narrow zone does not occur equation:
explicitly in the expression. The resulting formula for the K ~Z(T) +Q/pCp=O (4)
seized contact length is given by:
50 K. Ramanujachar,S. V. Subramanian/ Wear197 (1996) 45-55

where K= thermal diffusivity, T= temperature, Q = rate of parameters, the contact length, shear plane angle were used
heat generation, p = density of the chip material, Cp = specific to compute these temperatures. Clearly the temperatures in
heat. leaded steel are lower than those of unleaded steel. This is in
The heat generation term in the above equation arises from agreement with the limited thermocouple measurements
the heat generated as a result of plastic shearing of the material reported by Shaw et al. [ 1 ]. Having established that temper-
in the secondary shear zone immediately adjacent to the tool- atures are lower in the case of leaded steel we can use the
chip interface. A schematic diagram of the secondary shear temperature profiles generated through the model to obtain
zone is shown in Fig. 4. The temperature was assumed to the amount of tungsten transported by dissolution wear to the
vary linearly over the upper boundary of the region (OC) chip material by diffusion.
from the primary shear plane temperature at O to a maximum
calculated from the Boothroyd model [5] at the end of the 4.1.3. Quantitative modelling of diffusion wear
seized tool-chip contact length C. The flux at tool-chip inter- FEM analysis has shown that the temperature along the
face BC was calculated from the steady state condition. The seized contact length does not vary linearly. At the tool tip
flux boundary condition was converted to an integral over the the temperature is that of the primary shear zone. At the end
domain area with the aid of the Gauss-Green theorem. The of the seized contact length, the temperature gets raised to a
integral was then evaluated by discretizing the domain into maximum temperature predicted by Boothroyd's model.
linear variational triangular elements whose typical configu- Thus a volume element of the chip traversing through the
ration is shown in Fig. 4. This process converts the partial seized contact length starts offat the tool tip as ferrite at the
differential equation into a system of linear equations [ 13]. low primary shear zone temperature and progresses through
Th,~ ~ystem of ~quations was then solved with a Gauss direct a temperature range, transforms to austenite that gets raised
elimination which duly took advantage of the sparse nature to a maximum temperature at the end of the secondary shear
of the global stiffness matrix. For the temperature profile, the zone. The secondary shear zone undergoes severe deforma-
local equilibrium concentrations of tungsten were calculated tion involving a large shear strain, high strain rate under high
from solubility data for WC in appropriate chip phases. The compressive stress. In the ferrite region, the effect of severe
diffusional mass transport of tungsten into the chip was then deformation is accommodated by shear bands. In conse-
calculated. quence, the diffusivity is probably enhanced by dislocation
The program input consists of: pipe diffusion. Evidence for anstenisation has been reported
by Sheibourne [ 15], Hau Bracamonte [ 16] and Ingle [4].
Experimental input:
TEM examination of the secondary shear zone by Ingle has
1. Contact length
revealed the presence of ultra fine grains of less than 0.5/~m
2. Cutting force
diameter in size. During deformation of austenite in the sec-
3. Feed force
4. Chip thickness ondary shear zone, dynamic recrystallisation probably occurs
5. Shear plane angle involving grain boundary motion. Grain boundaries act as
6. Depth of cut high diffusivity paths [ 17]. The moving boundaries during
recrystallisation contribute to enhanced diffusivity [18].
7. Cutting speed
Clearly, the lattice diffusion is enhanced by the high diffusiv-
Material parame:cr~: ity paths available in the fcrrite and the austenite regions of
1. Density of workpie:e material the secondary shear zones as well as the region undergoing
2. Specific heat of workpiece material ferrite to austenite phase transformation.
3. Thermal conductiv.ty of workpiece material In the model originally proposed by Bhattacharyya [ 19],
4. Shear yield strength of chip material in the secondary the mass transported is given by the equation
shear zone
5. Chemical diffusivity of solute in the chip M = 1.1284CoA ( ~ - ~ ) (5)
where M = number of moles transported, Co = interfacial con-
Output:
1. Temperature distribution at the tool--chip interface centration in moles per volume, A = cross-sectional area,
D = diffusion coefficient, and ¢= diffusion time.
2. Tooi material transported into the chip by diffusion
The interracial concentration Co and the diffusivity D are
A typical temperature profile generated is shown in Fig. 5. critical material parameters that determine diffusion wear.
The temperature increases continuously over the seized con- However in Bhattacharya's model, the equilibrium solubility
tact length in qualitative agreement with Tay et al. [ 14]. product of tungsten carbide that determines local equilibrium
Appendix B shows a schematic diagram of the algorithm. of the tungsten concentration at the interface was not taken
This model is used to predict tool-chip interface temperatures into account. Ingle [4] has developed a thermokinetic model
during the machining of leaded and unleaded steel. Table 5 that takes into consideration the local equilibrium concentra-
compiles the maximum temperatures during the machining tion of tungsten that is determined by the equilibrium solu-
of leaded and unleaded steel at the four different cutting bility of tungsten carbide in austenite. However, Ingle's
speeds. Experimentally determined forces and geometrical model assumes an average interface temperature and austen-
 K. Ramanujachar. S.V. Subramanian/ Wear 197 (1996) 45-55

Table6 tool dissolution wear at higher cutting speeds during machin-

Calculated diffusionenhancementfactorto reconcilewiththe expetimen- ing with cemented carbide tools.
tally measureddissolution

Speed Tool Diffusionenhancementfactor DEFforGrade 1215 4.1.5. Effect o f engineered deformable oxide inclusions on
(DEF) forGrade 12L14 tool dissolution wear
The effect of engineering deformable oxide inclusions of
160 K- I 9654 • 336 • anorthitic composition CaO. AleO~. 2S;.Oe is to suppress tool
200 K-1 536 • 160•
dissolution wear. Extensive research has been carded out over
• Thisis the averagevalueby whichthe lattice diffusioncoefficientshould the years on inclusion engineering with respect to thermo-
be enhancedin orderto reconcilewiththe experimentallydetermineddis- dynamic phase stability of inclusions relevant to deoxidation
solutionwear. of steel, deformability of inclusions during steel hot rolling
Database: [ 29-31 ]. Fanlring and Ramalingam [ 32], have investigated
log D~=A~ +BIIT, AI ffi - 3 . 5 , B~ = - 1 2 8 5 0 [ 2 0 ]
log Dr=A2+ B2/T. A2 = -- 2.5, B2ffi- 16300 [20] the beneficial effect of calcium modification of alumina inclu-
log WaC~=A~ +BJT, AI =3.3, Bj =6404.3 [21l sions on tool wear. Gatellier et al. [33] have mapped the
log W ~ Cy= A2+ B21T, A2= 5.3, B2= 6404.3 [20] viscosity of inclusions on the CaO--AI203-SiO2 phase stabil-
ity diagram and have demarcated the glassy anorthite phase
isation over the entire seized contact length. In the present region as being deformable because of low viscosity, lower
model, the temperature variation along the seized contact than the plasticity of steel. Pierson et al. [34]. Unimetal
length has been considered and the diffusional model is cou- Research have developed a new process for the production
pled to the phase transformation resulting from temperature of glassy phase anorthite inclusions in free cutting steels that
variation along the contact length. The equilibrium solubility improve the tool life while cutting with carbide tools. The
product of WC and the lattice diffusion coefficient of W exact mechanism by which glassy phase anorthite inclusions
appropriate to anstenite and the fcrrite regions are considered. improve the tool life has not been resolved and this is the
In the absence of quantitative information on the diffusivity subject of further discussion.
enhancement in the ferrite and austenite regions, the lattice It is instructive to examine the diffnsivity of tungsten in
diffusion coefficient is used to predict the dissolution wear. the glassy anorthite phase. The equation governing the trans-
An average enhancement factor for lattice diffusion has been port of cationic species (W) in an anion network is described
calculated for each case to reconcile the predicted value with by the Nemst-Planck equation:
the experimentally determined value of tungsten dissolution.
Table 6 summarizesthe back-calculatedenhaneement factors
for the leaded and non-leeded steels for the cutting speeds
160 m rain- i and 200 m min- ~ respectively. As the cutting
where J~= ionic flux, D~= selfdiffusivity, Ci = coneenwation,
speed increases, the tool-chip interface temperature increases
Z~fcharge, FfFaraday constant, ~bfelectrical potential,
and the enhancement factor decreases. The diffusion
T= temperature, R = gas constant, and X = distance.
enhancemen: factor is greater for leaded steel than that for
An additional condition is that charge neutrality has to be
unleaded steel, suggesting that there are more high diffusivity
maintained which results in
paths operating in the leaded steel than that in the non-leaded
steel. ~z~',=0 (7)
The resulting flux equation depends not only on the con-
4.1.4. M i c r o m e c h a n i s m s o f t o o l w e a r i n m a c h i n i n g f r e e cut- centration gradient of the cation concerned (W), but also on
ring steels with carbide tools
the concentration gradient of concomitantly diffusing anions:
Both leaded free cutting steel (AISI 12L14) and
non-leaded free cutting grade steel (AISI 1215) exhibit 0c,
pronounced crater wear at cutting speeds 160 and Yi=DI I-~"x"1"DI20x (g)
200 m min- i respectively, when machined with K 1 grade
cemented carbide tool. Bulk of the tungsten lost from the tool where
is dissolved atomically in the chips, confirming that dissolu-
tion wear is the dominant mechanism of tool wear, see Figs. 2 Di ~-" DsCs( Zs) 2 - DIC,~ Z,) 2
and 3. The effect of addition of Pb to free cutting grade of
steels is to decrease the cutting force (27-41%) and the DH= /" ~-"DjCs(Zs)2 (9)
contact length ( ! 3-16%) as can be seen from Table 5 and as jffil
a result, decrease the predicted maximum t o o l - chip inter-
face temperature by 80 °C. However, the tool dissolution ~D,DTNC,
wear as measured by dissolved tungsten in the chips is com- DI2 •Jn ! -- (10)
parable to that of non - leaded steel. Clearly, neither lead nor E ~)jCj(Zj) 2
sulphide inclusions are effective in preventing or minimizing j=l
52 K. Ramanujachar.S. V. Subramanian/ Wear 197 (1996)45-55

Two diffusion coefficients enter the flux equation. Each of proposed for the case of diffusional wear. By choosing a
these diffusion coefficients depends on the intrinsic diffusiv- coating that is stable enough to resist dissolution or decom-
ity of the cation concerned in the glass phase as well as the position, wear due to chemical instability can be suppressed
concentration of anion in the glass phase [ 22]. The intrinsic [36].
diffusivities of cations like W in a glass phase like calcium The effect of machining non-leaded free cutting steel AISI
aluminosilicateare dependent on the composition of the glass, 1215 with a HfN coated K- 1 tool is to increase the shear plane
but in general are high due to the open nature of the frame- angle and decrease the feed force to cutting force ratio, see
work structure of anorthite [23]. Anorthite exhibits a struc- Table 5. In consequence, the contact length decreases in
ture much like cristobalite with characteristic large accordance with the foregoing theoretical analysis. Temper-
interstices. The diffusivity of Mn ion in the CaO--AlzO3-SiO2 ature distribution along the seized contact length was calcu-
slag phase at 1763K has been reported to be lated using thermal finite element modelling. Temperature
2 × 10 -4 cm 2 s - ~ [24]. The diffusivity of Fe ion in a slag distribution at the tool-chip interface was lowered as a result
phase of similar composition has been reported to be of coating. Quantitative analysis of diffusional wear for HfN
5 X 1 0 - t c m Z s - I [25]. was carried out using the equilibrium solubility product of
Since the slag exhibits an open structure that favours high HfN as a function of temperature for the appropriate stable
diffusivity of tungsten in the anorthite glassy phase it is sur- phase involved i.e. ferrite or austenite. Typical results
mised that the solubility of either WC or tungsten oxide in obtained for machining with HfN coated tool at a cutting
me glass phase is probably too low to support significant speed of 200 m m i n - t are summarized in Table 7. Clearly
diffusion of tungsten through the glassy anorthite phase. It the effect of low equilibrium solubility product of HfN is to
must however be pointed out that unlike the ordinary disso- suppress the diffusional flux to rather low values even at the
lution of tungsten in austenite discussed with AISI 1215, maximum tool-chip interface temperature. The diffusional
dissolution of a metallic species in a glass phase is governed wear is dramatically reduced by HfN coating.
by electrochemical reactions of the kind Quantitative analysis of diffnsional wear has shown the
M,=(M~)~+Z~e (ll) effect of coating is to decrease the maximum temperature at
the tool-chip interface by about 140 °C. The effect of reduc-
It is possible that the glassy inclusions could change the ing the maximum tool-chip interface temperature by 140 °C
tribology of seizure at the tool-chip interface thereby sup- on the diffusional transport of tungsten in uncoated AISI 1215
pressing dissolution wear. Further research is required to will be to decrease the tungsten concentration in the chip
resolve the mechanism underlying the suppression of crater from 0.17 ppm to 0.11 ppm. On the other hand the local
wear brought about by glassy inclusion. interface concentration of Hf is decreased by seven orders of
magnitude because the equilibrium solubility product of HfN
4.2. The effect o f HfN coating on tool dissolution wear is seven orders of magnitude less than that of W C in the
anstenite phase. In consequence, the dissolution wear of Hf
Kramer and Sub [ 35 ] have investigated solution wear due is dramatically decreased to 10-6 ppm of HfN.
to the dissolution of the tool material in the chip at high cutting In the diffusional wear analysis, the local equilibrium con-
speeds. The concept ofloeal equilibrium is applied at the tool centration of solute and the square root of the diffusion coef-
chip interface and the transport by diffusion mechanism is ficient of the solute ( C ~ °5) are the key material parameters

Table 7
Typical results from diffusionalwear analysisobtainedfor machiningAIS11215 with HfN coated K-I tool at 200 m/min

Temperature (K) Solpro Itcon (%) Diffco Masstran Con/,ppm)

552 1.06X 10-Ja 3.26X 10-07 1.26× 10-31 6.2× 10-~9

582 1.61 X 10-12 1.27X 10-°~ 8.43 X 10-29 6.23 X 10- ~
685 3.3X l0 -H 5.75X l0 -°~ 1.16X l0 -2s 1.05X 10- ~
771 2.79X 10-Jo 1.67X 10-°~ 1.93X 10-23 3.93X l0 -23 1.05 × 10 -°6
856 1.54X l0 -c° 3.93x 10-°s 1.16x l0 -zl 7.15 x 10-22
940 6.25 x l0 - ~ 7.91 x 1O-°5 3.28 × 10-2o 7.65 × l0 -21
1023 2X 10-°a 0.000141 5.31 x 10-19 5.51 x 10-20
1105 5.34 X l0 - ~ 8.3 X 10- 05 5.58X 10- ,s 1.05× 10- j'~
1186 1.24X l0 -ca 8.32X l0 -°5 4.19X l0 -17 2.88X 10-19
1265 2.57 X 10-°~ 8.36× 10-°5 2.4× 10-16 6.91 × l0 -19

Solpro= solubilityproduct in wt.%~.

Rcon~interface concentrationof HfN in wt.%.
Diffco= diffusioncoefficientof Hf in rn2 s - '.
M~suan = amountof Hf in grams transportedto a volumeelementof chip during its traverseover the contactlength segment.
Con = total concentrati~ ~of Hf in the cl',ipsduring I5 s of machining.
 K. Ramanujachar. S. V. Subramanian / Wear 197 (1996) 4.5-55

Table 8 ring speeds, where the tribology of sliding wear operates at

Equilibriumsolubilityproductsofnitridesandcarbidesat 1400K ( 1123°C) the t o o l - chip interface, it is essential to design soft inclu-
in austenite sions such as sulphide that can lower the critical accumulated
[Ti] IN] = 1.34X10-6 [Til [C] =7.04× 10-6 damage to that of leaded steel. However, at higher cutting
[Zrl [N] =2.34:< 10-~ [Zr] [C] = 1.64X10-2 speeds where the tribology of seizure operates at the
[Hf] IN] = 3.15× 10-~ [W] [C] =4.08 t o o l - chip interface, leaded steel can be outperformed by
[Nb] [ N] = 3.54× 10-~ [Nb] [C] = 5.99× 10- 3 engineering diffusion barrier at the tool - chip interface. The
[Ta] [N] = 1.26× 10-4 [Ta] [C] =7.94× 10-3
[V][N] =2.60X 10-3 IV] [C] =8.60× 10-I two viable option~ are:
1. Engineer deformable glassy phase oxide inclusions such
as CaO.Ai203-2SiO2 into the workpiece that suppress
that determine the diffusional wear. In the case of the HfN tool dissolution wear.
coating on WC tool, the decrease in the local equilibrium 2. Coat the tool with a compound such as HfN that has the
concentration (C~) has a dominating effect over the temper- least solubility in the workpiece at the typical tool-chip
ature effect in decreasing the diffusional wear. The local interface temperature.
equilibrium concentration C~ in torn is determined by the
equilibrium solubility product of carbide or nitride as the case
may be. Table 8 summarizes the equilibrium solubility prod- Conclusions
uct of nitrides and carbides in the austenitic phase of steel at
1400 K [26]. Dissolution wear is the dominant mechanism of crater
A good adhesion between the tool and the coating, gener- wear in both leaded AISI 12L14 and n o n - l e a d e d AISI
ation of thermal stresses at the tool - coating interface due to 1215 steels during machining at high cutting speeds with
differential thermal expansion, the possibility of formation cemented carbide cutting tools.
of brittle phases at the tool-coating interface are additional 2. Neither lead nor manganese sulphide inclusions are effec-
considerations in the choice of a high integrity coating to five in suppressing diffusional crater wear. However,
minimize chemical dissolution wear. For example, even engineered deformable oxide inclusions of the type
though TiN has a lower solubility product that is six orders CaO- AI203 •2SIO2 into the workpiece are very effective
of magnitude less than that of WC, delamination of TiN in suppressing diffusional crater wear.
occurred in the present work rendering the coating ineffective 3. Coating of the cemented carbide tool with HfN is effective
in suppressing dissolution crater wear. in suppressing dissolution wear of cemented carbide tool
during machining of non-leaded free machining steel
AISI 1215 at higher cutting speeds.
5. Strategies for replacement of lead in free cutting 4. The addition of lead results in an increase in the shear
steels plane angle and a decrease in the feed foree/cutting force
ratio which results in a decrease in the tool chip contact
The functional role of lead at low cutting speeds has been length. The predicted tool--chip interface temperature
the subject of intensive investigation by Shaw et al., who decreases by about 70 °C but this only has a marginal
concluded that lead forms a fluid layer at the tool-chip effect on the tool dissolution wear.
interface that aids the tribology of sliding wear operating at 5. Coating the tool with HfN increases thc shear plane angle,
low cutting speeds [ ! ]. They have reported that the contact reduces the feed force/cutting force ratio and hence
length and cutting force are reduced by lead additions. The decreases the tool chip contact length compared to the
role of lead inclusions in promoting ductile fracture involved uncoated tool.
in chip formation has been analysed in terms of damage 6. An analytical expression has been developed relating the
mechanisms and the effect of lead in lowering critical accu- seized tool chip contact length to the mechanics of metal
mulated damage is quantified by CAD measurementsby Sub- cutting and material properties. Bowden and Tabor's
ramanian, Kay, Stinson and Finn [28]. equation is used to describe the plastic flow of the seized
At higher cutting speeds using cemented carbide tools, the material under the action of compressive and shear
tribology of seizure sets in at the tool - chip interface, result- stresses and the energetics of metal cutting is also taken
ing in dissolution crater wear by diffusion mechanism. The into consideration. This expression predicts that the seized
present work has established that neither lead nor sulphide contact length is a function of the shear plane angle, the
inclusion is effective in suppressing the dissolution wear by feed foree/cutting force ratio,, feed, and the flow stresses
diffusion mechanism. However, deformable anorthitic oxide of the workpiece material in the primary and secondary
( CaO. AI203" 2SIO2 ) inclusions engineered in the workpiece shear zones, This expression has been shown to be inter-
or coating the tool with a HfN compound are found to be an nally consistent with the experimental data.
effective means of suppressing dissolution crater wear. Thus, 7. A first principles thermal finite element model has been
the strategy to replace lead has to consider the tribological developed to predict the tool-chip interface temperature.
conditions operating at the tool - chip interface, At low cut- Quantitative modelling is user2 to predict the transport of
54 £. Ramanujachar.S. V. Subramanian/ Wear197 (1.o96)45-55

tungsten from the tool into the chip by diffusion mecha-

nism. An enhanced diffusion coefficient that is two orders p = Fc cos a - F ~ / s i n a (A2)
of magnitude greater than the lattice diffusion coefficient X~Z
is required to reconcile the predicted and measured values where Xc=seized contact length, Z=depth of cut,
of tungsten dissolution in the chips. Fc = cutting force, F~ = modified feed force.
8. The local equilibrium concentration of solute C~ and the
square root of the diffusion coefficient D °'s are identified S = Fc sin o t + F ~ cos a (A3)
as the key material parameters that determine the diffu- x~z
sional tool wear. By decreasing the temperature of the
tool--chip interface, both the equilibrium concentration Substituting Eqs. (A2) and (A3) iutu Eq. ( A t ) and set-
and diffusion coefficient of the solute are decreased and ting F~/Fc = k we obtain the following equation for the cut-
in consequence the diffusional wear is reduced. But, the ting force
local equilibrium concentration of the solute can be F¢ = PoXcZ/ g( a, k) (A4)
decreased by orders of magnitude by choosing a coating
or a too! material that has the least dissolution potential in where g(ot, k) is defined as
the workpiece, and consequently, the dissolution wear can
g (or, k) = ~/2 sinZot+ 1 + 2k2 cos2a + ~ + 2k sin ( 200
be decreased by orders of magnitude. Thus the dissolution
wear is more effectively suppressed by a coating that (A5)
lowers the local equilibrium concentration of solute at the
tool---chip interface. The work expended in machining is given by
9. Inclusion engineering with deformable oxide inclusions W=FcVc (A6)
such as anorthite or coating the cemented carbide tool
with a coating that has the lowest equilibrium solubility where V~= cutting velocity.
product in the workpiece material are two attractive and This work is expended in shearing the material in the two
viable alternatives to replace lead in free cutting steels. zones of shear: the primary shear zone and the secondary
shear zone.
The work in the primary shear zone is
Acknowledgements epzVslz ( A7 )

Financial support of the research on free cutting steels by where ¢pz= shear strength of the chip material in the primary
the NSERC in the form of a Strategic Grant award and Ford shear zone, Vs=velocity on the primary shear plane,
Motor Company USA is gratefully acknowledged. Helpful l = Feed/sin ok, the length of the primary shear region.
discussion wi~h Drs. J.D. Embury and M. Elbestawi is grate- The work done in the secondary shear zone is given by:
fully acknowledged. "rssVcm~12 (A8)
Special thanks are expressed to Mr. W.E. Heitmann and
Roger Joseph of the Inland Steel Research USA for the supply where ~-~= flow stress of material in the secondary shear
of steels used in this study, Ms Alice Pidruczny for extensive z o n e , Vchip = velocity of the chip, xc = contact length, and
help with Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis and Mr z = depth of cut.
Pran Khindri, President, Weliworth Manufacturing, Oakville By using Eq. A4F_.q. A6Eq. A7Eq. A8 we obtain the fol-
for help with high speed machining. lowing expression for the seized contact length.

X¢= ('rpz/po)COS a sec(q~-a)tl cosec ~b (A9)

I / g ( et, k) - ( 1/2Vf3)sin ~ks o c 0 k - a)
Appendix A. An expression for the seized contact
length Since the work done in the primary shear zone is over 80%
of the work done in machining in the first approximation the
The following derivation for the seized contact length two can be equated yielding the following simplified expres-
attempts to capture the mechanics of tool-chip contact as sion for the seized contact length.
well as the energetics of metal cutting. The mechanics of
X~= ¢p~eos ¢~tlg(cc, k)/PoCOS(~b-c¢) sin ~b (A10)
tool-chip contact which is a situation of seizure is described
by the equation due to Bowden and Tabor: where tl = feed, In a typical case the plastic work from the
p2 + 3Sz=p2 (Al) secondary shear zone is about 15%.
If this is included in the analysis by multiplying Eq. A6 by
where P = normal stress on the rake face, S = shear stress on an appropriate factor the predicted value of X~ yields an even
the rake face, Po = chip material flow stress. better agreement with the experimental value than approxi-
For cutting with a positive rake angle ot mating the total work as that of the primary shear zone.
 K. Ramanujachar, S. V. Subramanian / Wear 197 (1996) 45-55

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