1st SEMESTER HISTORY NOTES

REENU BAIRAGI

1. What is history and define with its its scope?

Ans. INTRODUCTION :

History is the study of life in society in the past, in allits aspect, in relation to present
developments and future hopes. It is the story of man in time, an inquiry into the past based
on evidence. Indeed, evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning. It is an
Inquiry into what happened in the past, when it happened, and how it happened. It is an
inquiry into the inevitable changes in human affairs in the past and the ways these changes
affect, influence or determine the patterns of life in the society. History is, or should be an
attempt to re-think the past. Collingwood (1945) is particularly interested in this concept of
history.

 History aims at helping students to understand the present existing social, political,
religious and economic conditions of the people. Without the knowledge of history
we cannot have the background of our religion, customs institutions, administration
and so on.
 The teaching of history helps the students to explain the present, to analyse it and to
trace its course. Cause and-effect relationship between the past and the present is
lively presented in the history.
 History thus helps us to understand the present day problems both at the national
and international level accurately and objectively. In this unit we will be dealing with
meaning, nature and scope of history, aims and objectives of teaching history at
secondary level and values of teaching history.
Concept of History.......
 Concept of History is the analysis and interpretation of the human past
enabling us to study continuity and changes that are taking place over time. It
is an act of both investigation and imagination that seeks to explain how
people have changed over time.
 Historians use all forms of evidence to examine, interpret, revisit, and
reinterpret the past. These include not just written documents, but also oral
communication and objects such as buildings, artefacts, photographs, and
paintings. Historians are trained in the methods of discovering and evaluating
these sources and the challenging task of making historical sense out of them.
History is a means to understand the past and present.
 The different interpretations of the past allow us to see the present differently
and therefore imagine—and work towards—different futures. It is often said
to be the “queen” or “mother” of the social sciences. It is the basis of all
subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities and Social
science.

Definition of History
The origin of the word History is associated with the “Greek” word ‘Historia’ which means
‘information’ or ‘an enquiry designed to elicit truth’. History has been defined differently by
different scholars.

 Following definitions indicate the meaning and scope of History.

 Burckhardt: “History is the record of what one age finds worthy of
note in another.”
 Henry Johnson: “History, in its broadest sense, is everything that
ever happened.”
 NCERT: “History is the scientific study of past happenings in all
their aspects, in the life of a social group, in the light of present
happens.
 Jawaharlal Nehru: “History is the story of Man’s struggle through the
ages against Nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the
jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and
to exploit him for their own benefit.”
The above definitions explain History as a significant records of
events of the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details
of what happened to man and why it happened. Mainly it deals with
the human world.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF HISTORY

1. A study of the present in the light of the past: The present has evolved out of the past.
Modern history enables us to understand how society has come to its present form so that one
may intelligently interpret the sequence of events. The causal relationships between the
selected happenings are unearthed that help in revealing the nature of happenings and
framing of general laws.

2. History is the study of man: History deals with man’s struggle through the ages. History
is not static. By selecting “innumerable biographies” and presenting their lives in the
appropriate social context and the ideas in the human context, we understand the sweep of
events. It traces the fascinating story of how man has developed through the ages, how man
has studied to use and control his environment and how the present institutions have grown
out of the past.

3. History is concerned with man in time: It deals with a series of events and each event
occurs at a given point in time. Human history, in fact, is the process of human development
in time. It is time which affords a perspective to events and lends a charm that brightens up
the past.

4. History is concerned with man in space: The interaction of man on environment and vice
versa is a dynamic one. History describes about nations and human activities in the context of
their physical and geographical environment. Out of this arise the varied trends in the
political, social, economic and cultural spheres of man’s activities and achievements.
5. Objective record of happenings: Every precaution is taken to base the data on original
sources and make them free from subjective interpretation. It helps in clear understanding of
the past and enables us to take well informed decisions.

6. Multisided: All aspects of the life of a social group are closely interrelated and historical
happenings cover all these aspects of life, not limited only to the political aspect that had so
long dominated history.

7. History is a dialogue between the events of the past and progressively emerging
future ends. The historian’s interpretation of the past, his selection of the significant and the
relevant events, evolves with the progressive emergence of new goals. The general laws
regulating historical happenings may not be considered enough; attempts have to be made to
predict future happenings on the basis of the laws.

8. Not only narration but also analysis: The selected happenings are not merely narrated;
the causal relationships between them are properly unearthed. The tracing of these
relationships lead to the development of general laws that are also compared and contrasted
with similar happenings in other social groups to improve the reliability and validity of these
laws.

9. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history: History carries the
burden of human progress as it is passed down from generation to generation, from society to
society, justifying the essence of continuity.

10. Relevant: In the study of history only those events are included which are relevant to the
understanding of the present life.

11. Comprehensiveness: According to modern concept, history is not confined to one period
or country or nation. It also deals with all aspects of human life-political, social, economic,
religious, literary, aesthetic and physical, giving a clear sense of world unity and world
citizenship.

Scope of History

The scope of History is vast; it is the story of man in relation to totality of his behavior. The
scope of history means the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and extent of learning
experiences, provided by the study. History which was only limited to a local saga, has
during the course of century become universal history of mankind, depicting man’s
achievements in every field of life-political, economic, social, cultural, scientific,
technological, religious and artistic etc., and at various levels-local, regional, national, and
international. It starts with the past; makes present its sheet-anchor and points to the future.
Events like wars, revolutions, rise and fall of empires, fortunes and misfortunes of great
empire builders as well as the masses in general are all the subject matter of history. History
is a comprehensive subject and includes History of Geography, History of Art, History of
Culture, History of Literature, History of Civilization, History of Religion, History of
Mathematics, History of Physics, History of Chemistry, History of Education, History of
Biology, History of Atom, History of Philosophy-in fact history of any and every social,
physical and natural science we are interested in. History today has become an all-embracing,
comprehensive subject with almost limitless extent.

What is so beneficial about this type of study?

 Making connections between different concepts is essential in interdisciplinary study.

Here are some other benefits of studying in this way: Students are highly motivated
as they have a vested interest in pursuing topics that are interesting to them.
 As a result, the content is often rooted in life experiences, giving an authentic purpose
for the learning and connecting it to a real world context. Consequently, the learning
becomes meaningful, purposeful and deeper resulting in learning experiences that stay
with the student for a lifetime.
 Students cover topics in more depth because they are considering the many and varied
perspectives from which a topic can be explored. Critical thinking skills are used and
developed as students look across disciplinary boundaries to consider other
viewpoints and also begin to compare and contrast concepts across subject areas.
Students begin to consolidate learning by synthesising ideas from many perspectives
and consider an alternative way of acquiring knowledge.
 Exploring topics across a range of subject boundaries motivates students to pursue
new knowledge in different subject areas. Transferable skills of critical thinking,
synthesis and research are developed and are applicable to future learning
experiences. Interdisciplinary knowledge and application of different disciplines can
lead to greater creativity. Worthwhile topics of research can fall in the ‘spaces’
between the traditional disciplines.

History is the basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities and
Social Sciences. It is often said to be the “queen” or “mother” of the social sciences. History
is considered an indispensible subject in the complete education of man and it has been
defined differently by different scholars. According to modern concept, history does not only
contain the history of kings and queens, battles and generals, but also the communities and
the societies are the subject of study of history as well. History is a unique subject possessing
the potentialities of both science and art. As an enquiry after truth, history is a science and as
a narrative account of the past, it is an art or a piece of literature. History is a study of man. It
is concerned with man in time and space. It explains the present in the light of the past.
Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history. The scope of history is vast;
it is the story of man in relation to totality of his behavior. It starts with the past; makes
present its sheet-anchor and points to the future.

2. ADMINISTRATION OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

ANS. Introduction :
The Mauryan Empire, which lasted from 321 B.C.E. to 185 B.C.E., was the first pan-Indian
empire, encompassing much of the Indian subcontinent. It covered sections of modern-day
Iran as well as central and northern India. Following Alexander the Great’s death in 323
BCE, Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, acquired the Punjab area
from Alexander’s old empire’s southeastern boundaries. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya,
was Chandragupta’s Prime minister. He counselled him and contributed to the empire’s
legacy. Kautilya is noted for producing the Arthashastra, a treatise on leadership and
administration, in addition to being a political strategist. The Arthashastra explains how a
state’s economics and authority should be organised.

Mauryan Dynasty

 Kautilya's Arthashastra, Megasthenes' Indica, and Ashoka's edicts are among the
literary works that provide light on this period's history.
 Chandragupta defeated Dhana Nanda in 321 BC, with the help of a shrewd and
politically astute Brahmin.
 The Maurya Empire was established in the Magadha territory under the leadership
of Chandragupta Maurya and his mentor Chanakya. Chanakya
accompanied Chandragupta to Taxila to study about government and statecraft.
 Chandragupta needed an army, so he enlisted the help of minor military republics
such as the Yaudheyas, who had fought against Alexander's Empire.
 In the Indian subcontinent's northwestern region, the Mauryan army quickly came to
prominence as a regional force.
 Chandragupta's beginnings are shrouded in obscurity.
 He is identified as having non-warrior lineage in the oldest Greek sources.
 According to Hindu traditions, he was a poor Kautilya follower (probably born to a
Shudra woman). He was a Kshatriya, according to most Buddhist sources.

The Empire

 Pataliputra served as the imperial capital, and the Empire was divided into four
provinces.
 Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in
the north) are the four regional capitals according to Ashokan edicts (in the north).
 The provincial administration was overseen by the Kumara (royal prince), who acted
as the king's agent in the provinces. The kumara received assistance from the
Mahamatyas and the Council of Ministers.
 At the imperial level, the Emperor and his Mantriparishad matched this organisational
arrangement.
 The Mauryans developed a complex form of money minting. Silver and copper made
up the majority of the coinage.
 There were also some gold coins in circulation. The coins were widely utilised in
trade and commerce.

Administration During the Mauryan period

 The Mauryan dynasty was recognised for establishing monarchy in India.

The Mauryan administration is described in depth in Kautilya's Arthashastra.
 This was seen to be the most reliable source for information about the Mauryan
administration.
  Megasthenes Indica, like Arthashastra, sheds insight on the Mauryan government,
economics, trade, and society.
 Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan empire in 322 BCE, which lasted
until 180 BCE. Except for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the Mauryan empire spanned the
whole Indian subcontinent.
 The Mauryan government had a large bureaucracy that was responsible for many
aspects of life.

Central Government

 The Mauryan administration was notable for its centralization.

 It all began with the Emperor wielding immense power and exercising complete
authority.
 The 'Mantriparishad,' or council of ministers, governed the state, and the ministers
were called as 'Mantris' at the period.
 This Mantri council was presided over by the 'Mantri Parishad-adhyaksha.'
 Mahamattas are honorary titles granted to some of the country's most powerful
leaders.
 Amatyas, or high-ranking officials in administrative and judicial offices, were also
present.
 The Adhyakshyas were divided into departments, with a secretariat established.
 To maintain smooth operations, the government monitored and documented
production, births and deaths, industries, foreigners, product trade and sale, and sales
tax collection.
 Many Adhyakshyas are mentioned in Arthashastra for trade, storehouses, gold,
ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, and so on.
 Yuktas are subordinate officers in charge of the Empire's income.
 Rajjukas: Land measuring and boundary-fixing officers.
 Sanstha Adhyaksha: Mint Superintendent
 Samastha Adhyaksha: Market Superintendent
 Sulka Adhyaksha: Toll Superintendent
 Sita Adhyaksha: Agriculture Superintendent
 Navadhyaksha is a ship's superintendent.
 Loh Adhyaksha: Iron Superintendent
 Pauthavadhyakhsa: Weights and Measures Superintendent
 Mine Superintendent: Nagaradhyaksha
 Vyavaharika Mahamatta: Members of the judiciary
 Public relations officers in Pulisanj
 The administration was in charge of birth and death registration, foreigners, industry,
commerce, manufacturing and sale of commodities, and sales tax collection.

Provincial Administration of the Maurya Empire:

 According to Ashokan edicts, the empire was divided into provinces: Uttarapatha with
its capital Taxila (north), Dakshinapatha with its capital Suvarnagiri (south),
Prachyapatha with its capital Tosali (east), and Avantiratha with its capital Ujjaini
(west). The central province was Magadha and its capital was Pataliputra. Royal princes
or members of the royal family were appointed as governors of these provinces.
 The provinces were divided into extensive districts and in Ashokan inscriptions, these
administrative sections are referred to as Ahara and Janapada. The districts were
overseen by Rajukas with assistance from Yuktas. Districts were further divided into
 villages. Grahmini maintained the village administration and Gopa controlled from ten to
fifteen villages. The city superintendent, Nagarika, was in charge of law and order.
Local Administration

Villages were the smallest unit of the Mauryan administration.All the villages had a
head, better known as Gramika. He had the freedom to rule the villages.Also, there
were districts in the Mauryan administration, and the district magistrates were called
the Pradeshika.Under the Pradeshikas worked the tax collectors, known as the
Sthanika.The literates were given a better place in the Mauryan Administration and
were given the task of documenting the empire. They were known as the Lipikars or
the Scribers.There were many other local administrators like Akshayapala, the
Accountant General; Antapala, the Governor of Frontiers; and Durgpala, the
Governor of Forts.

 Aside from the urban zone, the empire was split into four provinces, each led
by a prince or a member of the royal family (Kumara or Aryaputra).

 The Northern Province (Uttarapatha), which had Taxila as its capital, the Western
Province (Avantiratha), which had Ujjain as its capital, the Eastern
Province (Prachyapatha), which had Tosali as its centre, and the Southern Province
(Dakshinapatha), which had Suvarnagiri as its capital, were Asoka's four provinces.
 The kingdom's headquarters were in Magadha's central region, with Pataliputra as its
capital.
 Some of the viceroy's officers, such the Mahamattas, who went on tour every five
years, were appointed by him.
 The village was the smallest administrative entity.
 Gramika Villages had a lot of liberty as a leader.
 The province governors or district magistrates were known as Pradeshika.
 Sthanika: Tax collectors who report to Pradeshikas.
 Durgapal: Fort Governors.
 Antapala: Frontier governors.
 Akshapatala: General Accountant Lipikaras.

Justice System

 The judicial system was under the ruler's control.

 The Gramvardha and Nagarvyavaharika Mahamatras, respectively, settled
conflicts in villages and towns.
 Rajukas, who were roughly equal to our current district magistrates, were found
across the state.
 Kautilya mentions two other sorts of courts: Dharmasthiya (Civil Court)
and Kantaka Shodhana (Criminal Court).

Revenue Administration

 Samharta was the head of the revenue department.

 Sannidhata was another significant official (treasurer).
 Land, irrigation, shops, customs, woods, ferries, mining, and pastures all generated
revenue.
 Artist licence payments were collected, and fines were levied in the courts.
  One-sixth of the output was used to generate the majority of the land revenue.

Espionage

 The Mauryas had a well-developed espionage system.

 Spies provided information to the Emperor on the bureaucracy and markets.
 There were two kinds of spies: Samsthana (stationary) and Sanchari (moving
around)
 Gudda Purushas were covert agents or investigators.
 The Mahamatyapasarpa ruled over them. These agents were chosen from various
social groups.
 There were additional agents known as Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).

Espionage

 The Mauryas had a well-developed espionage system.

 Spies provided information to the Emperor on the bureaucracy and markets.
 There were two kinds of spies: Samsthana (stationary) and Sanchari (moving
around)
 Gudda Purushas were covert agents or investigators.
 The Mahamatyapasarpa ruled over them. These agents were chosen from various
social groups.
 There were additional agents known as Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).

Mauryan Dynasty - Economy

 For the first time in South Asia, political and military stability allowed for the
creation of a single economic structure as well as greater trade and commerce,
resulting in increased agricultural productivity.
 Hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and
internecine strife gave place to a centralised administration that was more disciplined.
 Farmers were freed from the tax and harvest collection responsibilities of provincial
rulers, opting instead for a centrally regulated, strict-but-fair taxation system
prescribed by the Arthashastra principles.
 Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of
provincial governors and administrators, as well as a civil service, ensuring that
merchants, farmers, and traders were treated fairly and securely.
 The Mauryan army defeated several gangs of thieves, regional private armies, and
powerful chieftains who attempted to establish their own dominion in particular areas.

Mauryan Dynasty - Trade

 Silk and textiles, spices, and exotic delicacies were among India's exports. With
increased commerce with the Mauryan Empire, the outside world gained access to
new scientific knowledge and technology.
 In addition, Ashoka funded the building of hundreds of roads, rivers, canals, hospitals,
rest stops, and other public works projects.
 In many aspects, the Mauryan Empire's economic state parallels that of the Roman
Empire some centuries later.
  Both had substantial commercial relations and institutions that were akin to
companies.

Art and Architecture of the Mauryan Administration

The Mauryan empire administration was well known for its remarkable contribution to art
and architecture for the legacy of India.

 The concept of stone masonry was introduced by modern architecture under the
Mauryan administration, and that too on a wide scale.
 The Mauryan Palace, which was situated in Patliputra, was very luxurious and richly
loaded with remarkable art and architecture, as given in the documents of
Megasthenes.
 Small pieces of stone pillars have been found at Kumrah, situated on Patna’s
outskirts, signifying the existence of a great 80-pillared hall.
 All the remains of the Mauryan Empire and its administrative buildings ascertain that
the Mauryan artisans were highly skilled in polishing the stone pillars, as each of the
pillars was made of buff-coloured sandstone.
 These strong and beautiful carved and polished pillars were shut up in most parts of
the country, demonstrating that the transport system flourished in the oral
administration.
 The cities of the Mauryan Administration also had magnificent statues of lions and
bulls.
 The art and architecture of the modern artisans were not limited to just drawing and
carving on stones; they also hewed out caves from big rocks for the Sadhus to live in.
The best example could be the Barabar caves, which are situated 30 km from Gaya.

Conclusion

Among the literary works that provide light on this period's history are Kautilya's
Arthashastra, Megasthenes' Indica, and Ashoka's edicts. With the aid of a wise and politically
adept Brahmin, Chandragupta conquered Dhana Nanda in 321 BC. The Mauryan Empire's
government was well-organised and centralised. The most important source of knowledge
about the Mauryan Empire's administration is Chanakya's treatise, Arthashastra.

3. GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

Gupta Empire, also known as the Gupta Dynasty, was a significant period in ancient Indian
history. Spanning from the 4th to the 6th century CE, the Gupta Empire was a time of great
cultural, scientific, and economic advancements. It is often referred to as the Golden Age of
India, as it witnessed remarkable achievements in fields such as art, literature, mathematics,
and astronomy. The Gupta Empire was ruled by a line of powerful kings such as
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Skandagupta, and Chandragupta Vikramaditya, who
promoted a thriving society, encouraging intellectual pursuits and supporting the arts.

Gupta Dynasty - Background

  Many small kingdoms rose and fell after the Mauryan empire. Between approximately
300 and 700 CE, a classical pattern of imperial rule emerged, paving the way for state
formation in many regions.
 During this time, the Gupta kingdom rose to prominence as a great power, achieving
political unification of a large portion of the Indian subcontinent.
 It had a powerful central government that ruled over many kingdoms.
 During this time, feudalism as an institution began to take root. The Gupta economy
thrived thanks to an efficient guild system and overseas trade.
 During this time, great works in Sanskrit were created, and a high level of cultural
maturity in fine arts, sculpture, and architecture was attained.
 The upper classes' living standards peaked. Education, art, and scientific study
advanced, but the feudal system of governance placed people in some form of
hardship.
 Although some historians claim that the Gupta era was a golden age, this is not
entirely correct. However, many scholars agree that it was a period of cultural
florescence and a classical age for the arts.

Founder of Gupta Dynasty

The origins of the Gupta Dynasty can be traced back to its founder, Sri Gupta, also
known as Che-li-ki-to, who laid the foundation for the empire’s rise to power through his
leadership and strategic skills. Sri Gupta’s legacy is mentioned in historical accounts,
including the writings of the seventh-century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing.

 Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta Dynasty. He is believed to have ruled around
the 3rd century CE.
 He established his kingdom in northern India and laid the groundwork for the Gupta
Dynasty’s eventual dominance.
 Sri Gupta founded the Gupta Dynasty in northern India as his name is mentioned in
historical inscriptions and lineage descriptions, there is a lack of direct evidence in the
form of coins or inscriptions attributed to him.
 The oldest description of Sri Gupta can be found in the Allahabad Pillar
inscription, authored by his great-grandson, Samudragupta. This description is
verbatim in several subsequent documents of the Gupta dynasty.
 According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Sri Gupta’s lineage includes notable
figures such as Shri Ghatotkacha and Shri Chandragupta.

Gupta Administration - Features

 Monarchy was the dominant form of government during the Gupta period. The Gupta
dynasty's rulers had their own councils.
 Mantri Parishad was the name given to the ministerial council. It was made up of
high-ranking officials such as the kumaramatya and the sandhivigrahika.
 The empire was divided into provinces called 'bhuktis.' The bhuktis were further
classified as 'Vishyas.' Each bhukti was administered by a 'uparika,' who was
 appointed by the king. Vishayapatis were appointed by the provincial governor or, in
some cases, the king himself to control the vishayas.
 The bhuktis were further subdivided into 'vishayas,' each of which was overseen by a
Vishayapati.
 The village administration was overseen by the village headman. Unlike the Mauryan
period, the administration in the Gupta period appears to have been managed from the
ground up.

Gupta Administration :
The King
 During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings
assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara.
 They were also connected with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost
worshipper of the gods) and parama bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva
Krishna).
 Some historians have suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed divine status. For example,
Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription.
 These assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt to claim divine status by the king.

Ministers and Other officials

 Seals and inscriptions make a mention of official ranks and designations, whose precise
meaning is often uncertain.
 The term “kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title
represented a high-ranking officer associated with an office (adikarana) of his own.
 The designation “amatya” occurs on several Bita seals, and the “kumaramatya” seems to
have been pre-eminent among amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal
Kumaramatyas were attached to the king, crown prince, revenue department or a province.
 One of the Vaishali seals refers to a kumaramatya who seems to have been in charge of the
maintenance of the sacred coronation tank of the Lichchavis. Individuals holding the ranks of
kumaramatya sometimes had additional designations as well, and such ranks were hereditary.
 For example,Harisena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti (inscriptions of praise), was a
kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka, and was the son of Dhruvabhuti, a
mahadandanayaka.
Council of Ministers
 The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers).
 The Allahabad prashasti refers to an assembly or council, presumably of ministers, which
was known as the Sabha.
 The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or
mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who seems to have been a high-ranking
officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other states, including initiating wars
and concluding alliances and treaties.
 High-ranking officials were called dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were high-ranking
judicial or military officers.
 One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta.
 The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these suggest that these posts
were hereditary by nature.
 Another person had a designation mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry),indicating
military functions.
Division of the Empire
 The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas or bhuktis.
 They were administered by governors who were usually designated as uparikas.
 The uparika was directly appointed by the king and he, in turn, frequently appointed the head
of the district administration and the district board.
 Uparika carried on the administration “with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants,
horses and soldiers”, indicating his control over the military machinery as well.
 The fact that the uparika had the title maharaja in three of the Damodarpur plates indicates his
high status and rank in the administrative hierarchy.
 The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja
Surashmichandra as a lokpala, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
 Lokpala here seems to refer to a provincial governor.
 The provinces of the Gupta Empire were divided into districts known as visayas, which were
controlled by officers known as vishyapatis.
 The vishyapatis seems to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor.
 Sometimes, even the kings directly appointed the vishyapatis. Prominent members of the
town assisted the vishyapati in administrative duties.

Administrative Units below the District level

 The administrative units below the district level included clusters of settlements known
variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta.
 There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras.
 At the village level, villagers chose functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha.
 The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana
(a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara.
 Mahattara has a range of meanings including village elder, village headman, and head of a
family community.
 The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the panchmandali, which
may have been a corporate body.

Army
 Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as baladhikrita and
mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
 The standard term “senapati” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be
found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
 A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the office of the military
storehouse.
 Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which may have
been a district-level police office.
 The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included
the mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of
the royal kitchen).
 A Vaishali seal mentions a person both as a mahapratihara and a taravara.
 The top layer of the administrative structure also included amatyas and sachivas, who were
executive officers in charge of various departments.
 The system of espionage included spies known as dutakas.
 The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking officers.
Economic Condition
 Nitisara, written by Kamandaka, is a text like Arthasastra. It emphasises the importance of
the royal treasury and mentions various sources of revenue.
 The many ambitious military campaigns of kings like Samudragupta must have been financed
through revenue surpluses.
 Gupta inscriptions reveal some details about the revenue department.
 The akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of royal records.
 Gupta inscriptions mention the terms klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara, and iranyavesti meant
forced labour.

Agriculture and Agrarian Structure

 Agriculture flourished in the Gupta period due to establishment of irrigation works.
 Apart from the state and individual cultivators, Brahmins, Buddhists and Jain sanghas
brought waste lands under cultivation when they were donated to them as religious
endowments.
 Cultivators were asked to maintain their crops properly from damages and those who
indulged in damaging the crops were punished. Likewise, crops and fields were fenced.
 The crops cultivated during the Gupta period were rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses,
sugarcane and oil seeds.
 From Kalidasa, we come to know that the south was famous for pepper and cardamom.
 Varahamihira gives elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees.
 The Paharpur copper plate inscription indicates that the king was the sole proprietor of the
land.
 Even when he made land grants, he reserved his prerogatives over it.
 The location and boundaries of individual plots were marked out and measured by the record
keepers and influential men in the locality.
 As stated in Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala maintained records of all the land
transactions in the district and the village accountant preserved records of land in the village.
 During the Gupta period, the land was classified as detailed below.

1.Kshetra Cultivatable land

2.Khila Waste land
3.Aprahata Jungle or waste land
4.Vasti Habitable land
5.Gapata Sarahaà Pastoral land
 Different Land Tenures
Types of Tenures Nature of Holding
1.Nivi dharmaà ..->Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North
and Central India and Bengal.
2.Nivi dharma aksayana ->A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of
income derived from it.
3.Aprada dharmaà ->Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted
to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
4.Bhumi chchidranyaya –>àRight of ownership acquired by a person making barren land
cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
Other Land Grants
1.Agrahara grantsà–> Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
2.Devagrahara grantsà –>A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants
for the repair and worship of temples.
3.Secular grants–> àGrants made to feudatories of Guptas
Irrigation
 The importance of irrigation to agriculture was recognised in India from the earliest times.
 From the Narada Smriti, we understand that there were two kinds of
 dykes: the bardhya, which protected the field from floods, and the khara, which served the
purpose of irrigation.
 To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) were constructed, which is mentioned by
Amarasimha.
 Canals were constructed not only from rivers but also from tanks and lakes. The most famous
lake was the Sudarsana lake at the foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.

Position of Peasantry
 The position of peasantry was undermined. They were reduced to the position of serfs due to
the caste classification and also due to the granting of various privileges and lands to others.
 The practice of lease-holding reduced the permanent tenants to tenants at will (which means
tenants could be evicted without notice).
 The farmers were required to pay various taxes.

List of Different Kinds of Taxes

1.Bhaga à King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of
the produce paid by cultivators
2.Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to
provide to the king

3.Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax)
 4.Bali A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. It was an
oppressive tax.
5.Udianga Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax.
Hence, it was also an extra tax.
6.Uparikara Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was
collected for.
7.Hiranya Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably the
king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.
8.Vata-Bhuta Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the
spirits (bhuta)
9.Halivakara A plough tax paid by every cultivator owning a plough
10.Sulka A royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants. Hence
it can be equated with the customs and tolls.
11.Klipta and Upakilpta àrelated to sale and purchase of lands.
Industry: Mining and Metallurgy
 Mining and metallurgy was one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta period.
 Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent mention of the existence of
mines.
 The rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper from Rajasthan were mined extensively
during this period.
 The list of metals used apart from iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell-metal,
mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk (sanssilajata) and red arsenic.
 Blacksmiths were next only to agriculturists in importance in the society.
 Metal was used for the manufacture of various domestic implements, utensils and weapons.
 The improvement in the ploughshare, with the discovery of iron, for deep ploughing and for
increasing cultivation happened during this period.
 The most important and visible evidence of the high stage of development
 in metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex in
Delhi, identified with Chandragupta II.
 This monolith iron pillar has lasted through the centuries without rusting. It is a monument
to the great craftsmanship of the iron workers during the Gupta period.
 Coin casting, metal engraving, pottery making, terracotta work and wood carving were other
specialised crafts.
 A significant development of the period in metal technology was the making of the seals and
statutes of Buddha and other gods.
 It was laid down that the people had to pay for the loss arising out smelting of iron, gold,
silver, copper, tin and lead.

Trade and Commerce

 The contribution of traders to the soundness of the Gupta economy is quite impressive.
 Two distinctive types of traders called sresti and sarthavaha Sresti was usually settled at a
particular place and enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his wealth and influence in the
commercial life and administration of the place.
 The sarthavaha was a caravan trader who carried his goods to different places for profitable
sale.
 Trade items ranged from products for daily use to valuable and luxury goods.
 They included pepper, sandalwood, elephants, horses, gold, copper, iron and mica.
 The abundant inscriptions and seals mentioning artisans, merchants and guilds are indicative
of the thriving crafts and trade. (Guild is a society or other organisation of people with
common interests or an association ofmerchants.)
 There are several references in several sources to artisans, traders and occupational groups in
the guilds.
 Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial
enterprise.
 They remained virtually autonomous in their internal organisation, and the government
respected their laws.
 These laws were generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each
guild was a member.
 The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds.
 They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
 Guild laws were apparently laid down in written documents. The

Brihaspati Smriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these
decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king. There is also mention of the
philanthropic activities of guilds, for instance, providing shelter for travellers and building
assembly houses, temples and gardens.
 The inscription also records that the chief of the guilds played an important role in the
district-level administrative bodies.
 There is also mention of joint corporate bodies of merchant-bankers, caravan merchants and
 The guilds also acted as banks. The names of donors are mentioned in this inscription.
 Usury (the lending of money at an exorbitant rate of interest) was in practice during the
Gupta period.
 The detailed discussion in the sources of that period indicates that money was used, borrowed
and loaned for profit.
 There were many ports that facilitated trade in the western coast of India such as Calliena
(Kalyan), Chaul port in ruin sixty kilometres south of Mumbai, and the markets of
Male(Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana and Pandopatana on the
Malabar coast.
 Fahien refers to Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre of trade on the eastern coast.
 These ports and towns were connected with those of Persia, Arabia and Byzantium on the one
hand and Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on the other.
 Fahien describes the perils of the sea route between India and China. The goods traded from
India were rare gems, pearls, fine textiles and aromatics. Indians bought silk and other
articles from China.

Art and Architecture

By evolving the Nagara and the Dravida styles, the Gupta art ushers in a formative and
creative age in the history of Indian architecture with considerable scope for future
development.

Conclusion

The Gupta kings had to account for the brahman donees, who had absolute administrative
power over the people of the donated villages. Despite the Gupta kings' strength, institutional
factors working for decentralization were far stronger during this period. Throughout the
early medieval period, the Gupta administration served as a model for the basic
administrative structure, both in theory and in practice.

4. SULTANATE ADMINISTRATION:

INTRODUCTION

During the Sultanate of Delhi, all administrative decisions were made in accordance with
Muslim laws, also known as Shariat or Islamic laws. In governmental matters, the Sultans
and nobles were primarily responsible for adhering to Sharia or Islamic regulations. This
time, it was rightly stated that religion had a significant impact on the Sultanate of Delhi's
government.

Central Administration

The central administration of the Delhi Sultanate followed a very systematic and well-
planned administration procedure that was run by different ministers who had specific work
assigned to them. There were also several other departments, and the Sultan appointed their
officers to carry out specific duties.

 Sultan - was the head of state and had unrestricted power in all areas of state activity.
 Naib - held a position comparable to that of the Sultan.
 Wazir - state's Prime Minister and oversaw the financial department.
 Diwan-i-arz - military department.
 Diwan-i- Risalat – Department of Religious Affairs.
 Amir-i-Majlis-Shahi - he was the minister in charge of the state's festivals, as well as
all public conveniences and arrangements during festive seasons.
 Diwan-i-insha - was the minister in charge of the local correspondence of various
offices.

Provincial Administration

 During the Sultanate period, the Sultanate was divided into lqtas (regions). The leader
of iqtas is known by several names, including Muqti, Wali, and Nazim.
  The main responsibility of the Muqtis was to keep the peace, establish and extend
government authority, and recover state dues.
 Governors in charge of larger or more important provinces wielded greater power.

Local Administration

 Local administration was vague and undefined, with a largely traditional system.
 The provinces were divided into six sections, each led by a shiqdar, with the main
function of maintaining law and order and protecting people from zamindar
oppression, as well as performing military duties.
 The shiqs were further subdivided into parganas, each with its own set of officials.

Military Administration

 Ariz-i-Mumalik oversaw the army. Each soldier's descriptive role was kept in his
office.
 He was in charge of assigning different tasks to soldiers and also of military personnel
transfers.
 His office paid salaries to even court officers who held military ranks.
 He was the army's Collector General rather than its Commander-in-Chief. He wielded
considerable power over the state.

Judicial Administration

 The Sultan used to convene at least twice a week to hear complaints about state
officials. Qazi-i-Mumalik used to consult with the Sultan on legal matters.
 The Shariah was used to make decisions. Non-Muslims' cases were decided in
accordance with their own religious laws.

Revenue Administration

The state got five main types of revenue, according to the Shariyat. The specifics are as
follows:

 Uchar: A tenth-of-a-percentage-point tax on agricultural production paid by Muslim

residents.
 Kharaj: Non-Muslim citizens pay a tenth-of-a-percentage-point tax known as Kharaj.
 Jaziya: Non-Muslims are charged a fee for remaining in a Muslim state.
 Jakaq: Muslims pay a religious contribution known as jakaq.
 Khamas: The name given to 20% of the plunderer's wealth paid to the state is
Khamas

Iqta System

 The Iqtadari were a distinct type of land distribution and administrative system that
developed during the Sultanate of Iltutmish.
 The entire empire was divided into several large and small tracts of land called Iqtas
under this system.
 These plots of land were assigned to various nobles, officers, and soldiers for easy and
flawless administration and revenue collection.
  The Iqtas were transferable, which meant that the holders of Iqtas—Iqtadars—were
transferred from one region to another every three to four years.
 Individual troopers were the holders of small Iqtas. They were not in charge of
anything.
 The able king Muhammad of Ghur was the first to introduce the Iqta system in India
in 1206 AD, but it was lltutmish who gave it institutional form.
 During the Sultanate, the Iqtadari system underwent numerous changes. Iqta was
originally a revenue-generating plot of land assigned in lieu of salary.
 However, during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1351 AD, it became hereditary.

Economic and Social Life

 Very little is known about the people's economic situation in the Delhi Sultanate. The
historians of the time were more interested in events at the court than in the lives of
ordinary people.
 However, they do occasionally inform us of commodity prices. Ibn Battutah, a North
African from Tangier, visited India in the fourteenth century and spent eight years at
the court of Muhammad Tughlaq.
 He travelled extensively throughout India and left a very interesting account of the
country's products, including fruits, flowers, herbs, and so on, as well as the state of
the roads and people's lives.
 Rice and sugarcane were grown in the east and south, and wheat, oilseeds, and other
crops were grown in the north.
 According to Ibn Battutah, the soil was so fertile that it could produce two crops per
year, with rice planted three times a year.
 Sesame, indigo, and cotton were also grown. They were the foundation of many
village industries, including oil pressing, jaggery production, weaving and dyeing of
cloth, and so on.

Peasants and Rural Gentry

 Peasants still made up the vast majority of the population. The peasant continued to
work hard and eke out a living.
 There were recurring famines and wars in various parts of the country, which added to
the hardships of the peasant.
 All peasants did not live at the subsistence level. Aside from the village artisans and
sharecroppers, there was a more prosperous class of people who were landowners and
cultivators.
 They were the village's original settlers and dominated the village panchayat. The
village headmen (muqaddams) and smaller landlords (khuts) had a better standard of
living.
 In addition to their own holdings, they held lands for which they received
concessionary revenue.
 They sometimes misused their positions to force ordinary peasants to pay their fair
share of land revenue as well.
 These people were wealthy enough to ride on expensive Arabi and Iraqi horses, wear
fine clothes, and act like upper-class people. As we have seen, Alauddin Khalji dealt
harshly with them and reduced many of their privileges.
  Even then, they maintained a higher standard of living than ordinary peasants. They
appear to have been able to resume their separate paths following Alauddin's death.
 The Hindu rais or autonomous rajas, many of whom retained their previous estates,
had a high standard of living.
 There are several references to Hindu rais visiting Balban's court. There is little doubt
that these Hindu rais remained powerful even in areas directly controlled by the
sultans of Delh

Trade, Industry and Merchants

 With the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate and the improvement of

communication, as well as the establishment of a sound currency system based on the
silver tanka and the copper dirham, there was a definite growth of trade in the
country, as evidenced by the growth of towns and town life.
 According to Ibn Batuta, Delhi is the largest city in the Islamic world's east. He
claims that Daulatabad (Deogiri) had equaled Delhi, which is an indicator of the
growth of trade between the north and south.
 Cambay (Khambaat) in Gujarat was famous for textiles and gold and silver work.
 Sonargaon in Bengal was famous for its raw silk and fine cotton cloth.
 The introduction of the spinning-wheel improved textile production because cotton
could be cleaned faster and better with the use of the cotton carder's bow.
 However, the skill of the Indian craftsmen was undeniably important. During the
Delhi Sultanate Period, merchants shipped Indian textiles to West Asia and Europe
via the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
 Fine Indian textiles were also introduced to China, where they were more valuable
than silk.
 India imported high-quality textiles such as satin from West Asia, as well as
glassware and horses. It brought raw silk and porcelain from China.
 The Arabs were the Indian merchants' dominant trading partners in the Indian Ocean.
 Marwaris and Gujaratis, many of whom were Jains, controlled the coastal trade and
trade between the coastal areas and north India. This trade was also conducted by
Muslim Bohra merchants.
 Multanis, who were mostly Hindus, and Khurasanis, who were Afghans and Iranians,
were in charge of overland trade with Central and West Asia. Many of these
merchants established themselves in Delhi.
 Another significant advancement was the advancement of the rahat, which is a type of
wheel used to lift water from a deeper level for irrigation.
 Paper-making, glass-making, the spinning wheel, and an improved loom for weaving
were among the other crafts.

The Sultan and the Nobles

 The Sultan and his chief nobles enjoyed a standard of living comparable to the highest
standard in the world at the time, namely the standards of the ruling class in the
Islamic world in West and Central Asia.
 While Europe was still trying to overcome its backwardness, the opulence and wealth
of the ruling classes in the Islamic world was dazzling, and set a standard that the
ruling classes in every country tried to emulate.
 Almost every sultan in India, like the Hindu rulers, built his own palace. Balban had a
dazzling court that was designed to impress and awe visitors.
  The same tradition was followed by Alauddin Khalji and his successors. Ibn Battutah
described the palace of Muhammad Tughlaq. Visitors to the Sultan had to pass
through three lofty gates that were heavily guarded.
 He then entered the 'court of thousand pillars,' a vast hall supported by polished
wooden pillars and lavishly decorated with expensive materials and furnishings. This
was the location of the Sultan's public court.

Town Life: Slaves, Artisans and Others

 The Turkish ruling class was essentially an urban ruling class with a penchant for city
life.
 Many of the towns grew up around military garrisons as suppliers of food, goods, and
services. Many of them eventually became cultural hubs as well.
 The medieval towns had a diverse population, including many nobles and a large class
of clerks running government offices, shopkeepers, artisans, beggars, and so on.
 Clerks and lower-level government officials, of course, had to be filled by people who
could read and write.
 Another large section of the town was made up of slaves and domestic servants.
Slavery had long existed in India, as well as in West Asia and Europe.
 The Hindu shastras discuss the position of different types of slaves—those born in the
household, those purchased, those acquired, and those inherited.
 Slavery had been adopted by the Arabs and, later, by the Turks. Capture in war was
the most common method of acquiring a slave.
 Skilled slaves were valued, and some rose to positions of power, as in the case of
Qutbuddin Aibak's slaves. Firuz Tughlaq was also a slave collector, amassing
approximately 1,80,000 of them.
 Many of them were employed in handicrafts, while others served as the Sultan's
personal bodyguard. The majority of slaves, however, were used for personal service.
 It can be argued that the condition of a slave was better than that of a domestic servant
because the former's master was required to provide him with food and shelter,
whereas a free person could starve to death.
 Slaves were allowed to marry and own some personal property.
 It is estimated that during Firuz's reign, a family of a man, his wife, a servant, and one
or two children could live on five tankas for a month.
 As a result, living costs were low for a lower-level government official or soldier.
However, this did not apply to artisans and workers in the same way.
 As a result, medieval society was characterised by significant inequalities. This was
reflected in Muslim society even more than in Hindu society, the latter being
predominantly rural, with fewer inequalities.
 In towns, the Muslim nobility lived a life of great ostentation. Some of the wealthy
merchants, both Hindu and Muslim, led ostentatious lives.
 The vast majority of people, both in towns and in the countryside, led simple lives and
faced numerous hardships.
 It was not, however, a life without joy, as numerous festivals, fairs, and other events
helped to relieve the monotony of their lives.
Caste, Social Manners and Customs

 During this time, there were few changes in the structure of Hindu society. The smriti
writers of the time continued to elevate the Brahmans while harshly condemning the
order's unworthy members.
 According to one school of thought, the Brahmans were permitted to engage in
agriculture not only during times of distress, but also during normal times, because
officiating at sacrifices, etc., did not provide a means of subsistence during the Kali
Age.
 The smriti texts continue to emphasise that the Kshatriya's duty was to punish the
wicked and cherish the good, and that the right to wield weapons for the purpose of
protecting the people also belonged to him alone.
 While the shudra's highest duty was to serve the other castes, he was allowed to
engage in any occupation except dealing in liquor and meat.
 The prohibition on shudras studying and reciting the Vedas was reinstated, but not on
hearing the Puranas recited.
 Women's status in Hindu society changed little. The old rules requiring early marriage
for girls and the wife's obligation of service and devotion to the husband remained in
effect.
 Marriage annulment was permitted in exceptional circumstances, such as desertion,
heinous disease, and so on.
 Widow remarriage was one of the practises prohibited during the Kali Age.
 Regarding property, the commentators upheld the widow's right to the property of a
sonless husband, provided the property was not joint, i.e., had not been divided.
 The widow was not only the guardian of this property, but also had full authority over
it. Thus, it appears that women's property rights have improved in Hindu law.
 During this time, the practise of keeping women in seclusion and requiring them to
veil their faces in the presence of outsiders, known as purdah, became popular among
upper-class women.
 The practise of shielding women from public scrutiny was popular among upper-class
Hindus, and it was also popular in ancient Iran, Greece, and other places.
 During the Sultanate period, Muslim society remained divided into ethnic and racial
groups. We have already noticed significant economic disparities within it.
 Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims rarely marry. In fact, these sections
contributed to Hindu caste exclusivity. Converts from lower caste Hindus were also
discriminated against.
 The Hindu and Muslim upper classes had little social interaction during this period,
partly due to the latter's superiority complex and partly due to Hindu religious
restrictions on inter-marriage and interdining with them.
 The Hindu upper castes imposed the same restrictions on Muslims that they did on
shudras.

Nature of the State

 The Delhi Sultanate was a theocratic state. It was founded on the power of religion
and the army, and Islam was the state religion during this time period. Other religions
were not recognised by the state.
 Because the rulers were Muslims and the majority of the ruled were Hindus, the rulers
denied most Hindus any role in administration.
  The state of Delhi was not theocratic. It was centred on religion, but it was not
founded on religion, because the primary characteristic of a theocratic state is that it is
founded on the priestly class.
 The majority of the resources of the Delhi Sultanate were devoted to the spread of
Islam, and the Sultan's behaviour was also governed by the Quran.
 These principles had to be followed by the Sultan during his lifetime and in the
administration of the kingdom.
 A portion of the Sultanate's resources were directed toward suppressing non-Muslim
activities.
 The Sultan used to perform religious duties in order to strengthen his position. For
this purpose, the offices of Shaik-ul-Islam and Sadra-us-Sadra were established.
 The printing of currency in the Sultan's name and the reading of the khutba were both
religious in nature, and the Sadra used to monitor the religious behaviour of the
Muslim subjects.

Religious Freedom under the Sultanate

 Many cities were sacked early in the conquest, with temples being a special target,
partly to justify the conquest and partly to seize the fantastic treasures they were
supposed to contain.
 A number of Hindu temples were converted into mosques during this time period. The
most notable example is the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi, which is located near
the Qutab Minar.
 It used to be a Vishnu temple. To convert it into a mosque, the inner sanctum
containing the deity was removed, and a screen of arches containing inscribed
Quranic verses was built in front of it.
 A cloister was built around the courtyard using pillars from several temples. The
courtyard has mostly survived.
 In times of peace, however, Hindus practised their religion openly and ostentatiously
within Turkish territories and in areas where the rajas had submitted to Muslim rule.
 Despite the pressure of some orthodox theologians and the narrow approach of some
sultans and their supporters, this policy of 'toleration within limits' was maintained
during the Sultanate, albeit with occasional lapses.
 Prisoners of war were sometimes converted or criminals were exempted from
punishment if they accepted Islam.

Conclusion

Administration was a mix of Indian and foreign systems during the Sultanate period. It was
largely based on Arabic and Persian systems. The majority of the designs were influenced by
Arabic and Persian styles. The rulers adopted the Mughal army system while maintaining the
Hindu land revenue system in order to achieve better results.
Administration is the process or activity by which a system is run. The Mughal empire was
founded by the king Babur. The main aim of the Mughal empire was to set up the Mughal
administration to keep an eye and rule the different parts of the empire. The Mughal empire
was the central administrative authority in order to hold the entire power. In the seventeenth
century, the Mughal empire was the greatest manufacturing and economic power in the
entire world. Many officers were appointed in different positions of the administration to
govern and rule this entire part of the empire.

The Mughal administration was the mostly centre based administration. In the Mughal
administration, the Mughal emperor was the supreme head. A number of ministers at the
different stages of the empire had been appointed in the Mughal administration.

Levels of the Mughal administration

The levels of Mughal administration were divided into many subparts. The different officers
were appointed in these governmental departments. The levels of the Mughal administration
in the Mughal empire are listed below.

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Central Administration
The Mughal empire rules almost in every part of modern India. The Mughal empire was the
central administrative authority in order to hold the entire power.

Let us look at the various features of the Mughal administration at the central level.

The Emperor

The Emperor was in charge of all governmental functions, including the military and the
judiciary. All officers in the Mughal administration owed the Emperor their authority and
status. The Emperor had the power to nominate, elevate, and dismiss officials as he pleased.
The Emperor was not under any institutional or other pressure. A few departments were
established to ensure the empire operated without a problem.

Wazir and Wakil

The Wizarat (or Wikalat) institution existed in some capacity throughout the Delhi Sultanate
as well. During the Afghan kings' reign in the Delhi Sultanate, the position of Wazir had lost
its prominence. Under the Mughals, the wazir position was reinstated. The Wazir
of Babur and Humayun held considerable authority. It was during Bairam Khan's (1556–60)
reign as Akbar's regent that the wakil–Wazir, a person with unrestricted power, rose to
prominence. Afterwards, Akbar removed Wazir's financial authority in an effort to limit his
power. This made a significant decline in Wazir's power.

Diwan-i-Kul

Diwan-i Kul served as the main diwan. He handled the revenue administration of the
Mughals.
 By giving the diwan the authority over revenue, Akbar strengthened the position of the
diwan. The diwan oversaw the provincial diwan and used to oversee all transactions and
payments in all ministries. He was in charge of the empire's entire revenue collection and
spending. The diwans were required to give the Emperor daily reports on the state's finances.

Mir Bakshi

All administrative issues relating to the military were handled by Mir Bakshi. He was an
important officer under the Mughal administration. He approved and endorsed the mansabdar
appointment orders and their salary papers. He kept a close eye on the mansabdars'
maintenance of the authorised number of armed contingents and military equipment. The Mir
Bakshi introduced the new entrants seeking employment to the Emperor.

Mir Saman

The officer in command of the royal Karkhanas was known as the Mir Saman. For the royal
household, he was in charge of handling all kinds of purchases and their storage. He was also
tasked with overseeing the production of various items for the royal household.

Sadr-us Sudur

The religious division in the Mughal administration was under the direction of Sadr-us Sudur.
His main responsibility was to uphold Sharia law. Distribution of allowances and stipends to
deserving individuals and religious organisations was handled by the office of the Sadr. The
first 25 years of Akbar's rule made this job exceedingly lucrative. Mahzar was promulgated in
1580, which limited his power. In disagreements among religious academics, Akbar's
viewpoint was to take precedence. The revenue-free grants made for religious and
philanthropic reasons were likewise governed by this officer. Eventually, a number of
limitations were imposed on the Sadr's ability to provide grants that were independent of
revenue. Muhtasibs were chosen to make sure that morality was generally upheld. He used to
check weights and measurements, enforce fair prices, and other things.

Province Administration
During the era of Akbar, he divided the Mughal empire into the 12 subas. To control and
regulate these subas, the uniform administrative model for each suba was adopted. The part
of province level of Mughal administration are:

1. Diwan- Diwan was head of all the operation specially revenue department in a suba and
responsible to report at the central level. Letter to make the diwan independent with the
responsibility of subhadra, Sipah Salar Nazim position is formed.
2. Bakhshi- Bakhshi keeps an important role at the suba level in the Mughal empire. He looks
out the payment, appointment and other works related to the soldiers at suba.
3. Darogha- Darogha- i dak was responsible for the communication system of the imperial
postal system in the suba. It was the system of sending and receiving the message at the dak
chowkis.
4. Fozdar and kotwal- Fozdar was the administrative head of the district and kotwal were
appointed to do the executive and ministerial duties.
 Local Administration
The local administration was divided into the sarkar, pargana and village level.

1. Sarkar level-In the sarkar level, the faujdar and malguzar were the two most important posts.
Faujdar was the administrative head and responsible to safeguard the life and property of
people and the malguzar was the revenue collector.
2. Pargana level- Parganas works at the bottom hand of the sarkar. In the paragana, shiqqadar is
an executive officer of the amalguzar.
3. Village level-This is the lowest administration unit of the Mughal administration.
Muqqaddam was the head man of the village at the village level administration. Patwari was
responsible to keep the record of revenue in the village.

Town, Fort and port administration

The administration to handle the work related to the town (cities), forts and the ports, this
department was responsible in Mughal administration. The officers in this administration are
–

1. Kotwal- The first responsibility of the kotwal is to provide safeguard to the people and their
property at the city level. Kotwal keeps the record of the unknown person, and issues the
permit to the outsiders.
2. Al’adar- Al’adar was in incharge of the administration of the forts and responsible to guard
the fort which indeed fell in his assigned area.
3. Mutasaddi- Mutasaddi was the governor of the ports, whose duty was to collect the tax and
supervised the ports activities.

Departments of the Mughal administration

 Revenue department-In order to collect the tax and revenue, the separate department was
established in Mughal administration. The Zabti system was famous in this empire, in which
the one third price of the produced crop was the share of state. Land revenue was fixed in the
Mughal administration
 The officers of the military department who are responsible for soldier activity are Bakshi at
central and suba level, Mansabdar head of the soldiers, horseman and other department of
military. Dakhili and ahadis work under the Mansabdar

Administrative Institutions Under Mughals

Let us look at the Administrative Institutions Under Mughals.

System of Mansab

The mansab and Jagir system in India under the Mughal administration. The Mughals in
India came up with the novel system known as Mansabdari. The Mughals' civil and military
administrations were built on the mansabdari system, which Akbar had modified and
changed.

Mansab is Arabic for place or situation. An individual's rank in the organisational structure
and compensation were both determined by the mansab that was given to him. Additionally,
it stipulated how many armed retainers the owners of mansab had to have on hand. The
system was created to standardise the nobles' positions, set their salaries, and determine how
many cavalries they were to maintain.

Jagirdari System

Under the Mughal administration, allocating a specific territory's revenue to nobles in

exchange for assistance to the state persisted. The Mughals referred to the designated lands as
Jagir and the people who held them as Jagirdars. The Mansabdari system, which was created
under Akbar and underwent certain alterations during the rule of his successors, included the
Jagirdari system as a crucial component. All of the territories were split in two under Akbar's
reign: Khalisa and Jagir. Mansabdars' salary entitlements were determined based on their Zat
and Sawar ranks.

None of the jobs, though, were inherited or permanent. The Jagir might be moved in whole or
in part by the Emperor at any moment from one area of the imperial domain to another.
Throughout the Mughal era, the ratio between Jagir and Khalisa changed frequently.

Khalisa only made up 5% of overall revenue under Akbar's reign; under Jahangir, it increased
to 10%; and under Shahjahan, it varied between 9% and 15%. When the number of people
vying for Jagir rose along with the number of mansabdars, there was a lot of strain on the
Khalisa towards the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Moreover, the jagirdars were moved from one
Jagir to another.

It had the drawback of discouraging the Jagirdars from implementing long-term plans for the
improvement of their regions. There were different kinds of Jagirs under the Mughal
administration.

o Watan Jagirs were allotted to Zamindars or rajas in their local dominions. They were
inherited and could not be shared.
o Mashrut Jagirs were provided under particular conditions.
o Tankha Jagirs were given in lieu of salaries. Tankha Jagirs could be transferred every
three to four years.
o Muslim aristocrats received Altamgha Jagirs in the hometowns or birthplaces of their
families.

Only permitted revenue may be collected by the Jagirdars in accordance with imperial rules.
The jagirdars employed their own employees, including Amil and others. The Jagirdars were
being watched by the imperial authorities. Whenever the Jagirdas had any issues with
revenue collection, Faujdar would aid them.

Conclusion
The Mughal administration was the mostly centre based administration. The main aim of the
Mughal empire was to set up the Mughal administration to keep an eye and rule the different
parts of the empire.The Mughal administration divided the Mughal empire into the 12 subas.
To control and regulate these subas, the uniform administrative model for each suba was
adopted.
 4. Nature of Islamic state

INTRODUCTION
An Islamic state is a state that has a form of government based on Islamic law
(sharia). As a term, it has been used to describe various historical polities and theories
of governance in the Islamic world.[1] As a translation of the Arabic term dawlah
islāmiyyah (Arabic: ‫ )دولة إسالمية‬it refers to a modern notion associated
with political Islam (Islamism).[2][3] Notable examples of historical Islamic states
include the State of Medina, established by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the
Arab Caliphate which continued under his successors and the Umayyads.

Early Islamic governments

The first Islamic State was the political entity established by Muhammad in Medina in 622
CE under the Constitution of Medina. It represented the political unity of the
Muslim Ummah (nation). It was subsequently transformed into the caliphate by Muhammad's
disciples, who were known as the Rightly Guided (Rashidun) Caliphs (632–661 CE). The
Islamic State significantly expanded under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and
consequently the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).
Essence of Islamic governments[edit]
The essence or guiding principles of an Islamic government or Islamic state, is the concept
of al-Shura. Several scholars have different understandings or thoughts, with regard to the
concept al-Shura. However, most Muslim scholars are of the opinion that Islamic al-
Shura should consist of the following:[5]

 Meeting or consultation that follows the teachings of Islam.

 Consultation following the guidelines of the Quran and the Sunnah.
 There is a leader elected among them to head the meeting.
 The discussion should be based on mushawarah and mudhakarah.
 All members are given fair opportunity to voice out their opinions.
 The issue should be of maslahah ammah or public interest.
 The voices of the majority are accepted, provided it does not violate the teachings of the
Quran or Sunnah.
Muhammad himself respected the decision of the shura members. He is the champion of the
notion of al-Shura, and this was illustrated in one of the many historical events, such as in the
Battle of Khandaq (Battle of the Trench), where Muhammad was faced with two decisions,
i.e. to fight the invading non-Muslim Arab armies outside of Medina or wait until they enter
the city. After consultation with the sahabah (companions), it was suggested by Salman al-
Farsi that it would be better if the Muslims fought the non-Muslim Arabs within Medina by
building a big ditch on the northern periphery of Medina to prevent the enemies from
entering Medina. This idea was later supported by the majority of the sahabah, and thereafter
Muhammad also approved it.
Muhammad placed great emphasis on agreement about the decision of the shura because the
majority opinion (by the sahabah) is better than a decision made by one individual.
Mode of life in Islamic State
In the Qur’an no mode of life is prescribed for a politically and economically subjugated
Muslim community. In Sura 4: Verse 59 the Muslims are commanded to obey Allah, to obey
the Holy Prophet and those having authority over them, who are from amongst them.
Consequently, a Muslim is to render obedience firstly to Allah, then to the Holy Prophet,
lastly to those members of the Muslim community who command authority over him
provided that they are acting only in execution of the commands of Allah and the Holy
Prophet. So, it is evident that rendering obedience to those who command authority over
*Chief Justice of Punjab High Court, Lahore, Pakistan. 11 the Muslim community is
conditional. This obligation ceases if the above conditions are not fulfilled. It is further
evident that the mode of life which a Muslim is commanded to follow can only be followed if
he is a member of a politically and economically free community. Consequently, the Muslim
community must strive for establishing a state wherever it is possible to establish a viable
state.
State and its administration:
A state which is managed and administered in accordance with Islamic law is technically
called Dad Islam (country of peace). If a Duml Islam or an Islamic state is politically or
economically subjugated by a non-Muslim power, it will be transformed into
DamlHurb(country of war) and the Muslims shall be left with only two alternatives: Either to
conduct Jihad (struggle) in order to regain their independent status or to migrate (Hikat) to
some Muslim country. Thus, the Muslim concept of patriotism is not solely based on an
attachment with a particular land or territory, but is based on an attachment to the ideals and
aspirations which have been realized or are being realized or may be realized through
institutions established in such land or territory. In theory, the Islamic state is Allah’s State
and the Muslims constitute Allah’s Party (Hizhllah). It is based on a two-fold concept of
happiness. It must cater for the realization of happiness for the Muslim community in this
world as well as prepare it for realizing happiness in the hereafter. These objectives of an
Islamic state necessitate that the Muslim community (Hizhllah) be founded on the principles
of equality, solidarity and freedom.
Features of Islamic State:
 Traditionally, the Muslim Jurists have emphasized three important features of
an Islamic state which are: The Muslim community (Milla), the Islamic law
(Shaariah) and the Headship of the Muslim community (Khul$ia).
 Since absolute authority or ultimate sovereignty vests in Allah, the Islamic
state upholds the supremacy of Islamic law and further, since the Muslim
community is to be governed in accordance with the Islamic law, it must have
a directing Head to implement or execute the said law.
 Since the law has already been laid down by Allah in the Qur’an, the Head of
the Islamic state is only an executive authority and has no inherent power to
legislate. Wherever the law is clearly laid down in the Qur’an, he must
implement or execute the same. But guided by the spirit of those laws and
principles, he is authorized, in certain exceptional circumstances, to alter or
temporarily suspend those laws or makes subordinate legislation.
 He shall appoint a Body of Advisers (Shuru) which must be consulted in
making such subordinate legislation or for other matters, but he is not bound
by their advice.
 The Head of the Muslim community is called Khulifu (the successor of the
Holy Prophet) or Imam.
  The Judiciary (Quda) has the power to interpret the Islamic law and to
adjudicate in accordance with the same.
 According to the Sunni view, as shall be explained later, the appointment of
Khulifu is to be confirmed by the Muslim community (Milla) through its
consent which is formally obtained by means of 12 baiyut (a symbolic way of
rendering obedience).
Development of Modern Conception of Islamic state[edit]
According to Pakistani scholar of Islamic history Qamaruddin Khan, the term Islamic state
"was never used in the theory or practice of Muslim political science, before the twentieth
century".[9][10] Sohail H. Hashmi characterizes dawla Islamiyya as a neologism found in
contemporary Islamist writings.[7] Islamic theories of the modern notion of state first emerged
as a reaction to the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate in 1924. It was also in this context that
the famous dictum that Islam is both a religion and a state (al-Islam din wa dawla) was first
popularized.[1]
The modern conception of Islamic state was first articulated by the Syrian-Egyptian Islamic
which reduced the Khilafa into a purely spiritual authority; soon after the First World War. In
book al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-Uzma (The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate) published in
1922, Rida asserted that the Caliphate should have the combined powers of both spiritual and
temporal authority. He called for the establishment of an Islamic state led by Arabs,
functioning as a khilāfat ḍurūrah (caliphate of necessity) that upholds Sharia, and defend its
Muslim and non-Muslim subjects.[11]
Another important modern conceptualization of the Islamic state is attributed to Abul A'la
Maududi (1903–1979), a Pakistani Muslim theologian who founded the political
party Jamaat-e-Islami and inspired other Islamic revolutionaries such as Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini.[12] Abul A'la Maududi's early political career was influenced greatly by anti-
colonial agitation in India, especially after the tumultuous abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate
in 1924 stoked anti-British sentiment.[13]
The Islamic state was perceived as a third way between the rival political systems of
democracy and socialism (see also Islamic modernism).[14] Maududi's seminal writings
on Islamic economics argued as early as 1941 against free-market capitalism and state
intervention in the economy, similar to Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr's later Our
Economics written in 1961. Maududi envisioned the ideal Islamic state as combining the
democratic principles of electoral politics with the socialist principles of concern for the poor.
[

Conclusion:
Thus we see that the political theory of Islam had to undergo frequent changes to
accommodate the empirical reality. It is, therefore, not possible to talk of an 'Islamic
State' with a sense of finality. It is extremely difficult task to evolve
any ijma (consensus of Muslims) on the issue. Today also there are several Muslim
countries with as varied forms of state as monarchical to dictatorial or semi-
dictatorial to democratic. All these states, however, call themselves as 'Islamic State'.
The forms and structures of state are bound to vary from place to place and time to
time. It would be very difficult, for example, to create a democratic state in a feudal
society. Thus the Qur'an does not give much importance to the form of state but
greatly emphasizes the nature of society. While the state is contingent the society
based on values like justice, equality, compassion and human dignity is a necessity in
Islam. And needless to say in our time it is only a democratic state with widest
possible power-sharing arrangement, which can guarantee such a society. Also, as per
the Qur'anic teachings, the Islamic state should guarantee equal rights to all ethnic,
racial, cultural, tribal and religious groups.