COLUMNS WITH OTHER SUPPORT CONDITIONS
Euler’s Formula for Columns with Other End Conditions
Euler’s formula was derived and analyzed for a column pin-
connected at both ends. Now the critical load Pcr will be
determined for columns with different end conditions.
(I) Fixed – Free End Conditions
Figure 1 (a) and (b): Effective length of a fixed-free column of
length L is equivalent to a pin-ended column of length 2L
A column with one free end A supporting a load P and one
fixed end B (ref Figure a) behaves as the upper half of a pin-
connected column (ref Figure b).
The critical load for the column of (Figure a) is thus the same
as for the pin-ended column of (Figure b) and can be obtained
from Euler’s formula for the pin-ended column by using a
column length equal to twice the actual length L.
Thus the effective length Le of the column of (Figure b) is
equal to 2L, and substituting Le = 2L in Euler’s formula:
The corresponding critical stress is
The quantity Le/r is called the effective slenderness ratio of the
column and for Figure a is equal to 2L/r.
(II) Fixed-Fixed End conditions
Now consider a column with two fixed ends
A and B supporting a load P (ref Figure 2)
Free-body diagram of buckled fixed-ended
column and Free-body diagram of upper half
of fixed-ended column are analyzed.
Fig. 4 Free-body diagram of
upper half of fixed-ended column.
Fig. 3 Free-body diagram of buckled fixed-ended column.
The symmetry of the supports and the load about a horizontal
axis through the midpoint C requires that the shear at C and
the horizontal components of the reactions at A and B be
zero (Fig. 3).
Thus, the restraints imposed on the upper half AC of the column
by the support at A and by the lower half CB are identical (Fig.
4).
Portion AC must be symmetric about its midpoint D, and this
point must be a point of inflection where the bending moment is
zero.
The bending moment at the midpoint E of the lower half of the
column also must be zero (Fig. 5 a) (a point of inflection)
Fig. 5 Effective length of a fixed-ended column of length L is
equivalent to a pin-ended column of length L/2.
Since the bending moment at the ends of a pin-ended column
is zero, portion DE of the column in Fig. 5 a must behave like a
pin-ended column (Fig. 5b).
Thus, the effective length of a column with two fixed ends is
Le = L/2 (pin-ended column).
(III) Fixed – Pinned End Conditions
Fig. 6 Column with fixed-pinned end conditions.
In a column with one fixed end B and
one pin-connected end A supporting a load P
(Fig. 6), the differential equation of the
elastic curve must be solved to determine
the effective length.
Fig. 8 Free-body diagram of
portion AQ of buckled fixed-pinned column.
Fig. 7 Free-body diagram of buckled fixed-pinned column.
From the free-body diagram of the entire column (Fig. 7), a
transverse force V is exerted at end A, in addition to the axial
load P, and V is statically indeterminate.
Considering the free-body diagram of a portion AQ of the
column (Fig. 8), the bending moment at Q is
Substituting this value into the general bending equation
Rearranging the term containing y and setting we get
This is a linear, nonhomogeneous differential equation of the
second order with constant coefficients. The general solution
is the sum of the complimentary function (obtained for the
homogeneous equation of the pin- ended column) and the
particular solution.
Such a particular solution is:
or equivalently
since
hence the general solution is :
The constants A and B and the magnitude V of the unknown
transverse force V are obtained from the boundary conditions in
Fig. 7. Making x = 0, y = 0 in above Equation for general solution,
B = 0. Making x = L, y = 0, gives
(a)
Taking the derivative of y in the general solution, with B = 0
At
(b)
Dividing Eq. (a) by Eq. (b), the general solution for y is valid only if
Solving this equation by trial and error (or numerical computation),
the smallest value of pL that satisfies this equation is
(Check as HW)
Carrying the value of p from the above equation into the earlier
expression for ‘p’ and solving for P, the critical load for the
Fixed-pinned column of Fig. 6 is
The effective length of the column Le is obtained by equating
the right hand members of above equation and the equation
defined earlier,
Solving for Le, the effective length of a column with one fixed
end and one pin-connected end is Le = 0.699 L ≈ 0.7 L
Figure 9
Summary of effective length of column for various end conditions.
Limitations of Euler’s Formula, Rankine Formula
The preceding portions determined the critical load of a
column by using Euler’s formula. In each case, all stresses
remained below the proportional limit, and the column was
initially a straight, homogeneous prism. (Ideal condition)
Real columns fall short of such an idealization, and in practice
the design of columns is based on empirical formulas that
reflect the results of numerous laboratory tests. Many columns
are generally tested by applying to them a centric axial load and
increasing the load until failure occurred.
The results of such tests (for typical steel columns) are
represented in Fig. 10 where a point has been plotted with its
ordinate equal to the normal stress cr at failure and its
abscissa is equal to the corresponding effective slenderness
ratio Le/r.
Although there is considerable scatter in the test results, regions
corresponding to three types of failure can be observed.
Fig. 10 Plot of test data for steel columns.
For long columns, where Le/r is large, failure is closely
predicted by Euler’s formula, and the value of cr depends
on the modulus of elasticity E of the steel used—but not on
its yield strength Y .
For very short columns and compression blocks, failure
essentially occurs as a result of yield, and cr < Y .
For columns of intermediate length, failure is dependent on
both Y and E. In this range, column failure is an extremely
complex phenomenon, and test data is used extensively to
guide the development of specifications and design formulas.
Fig. 11 Plots of empirical formulas for critical stresses.
Empirical formulas for an allowable or critical stress given in
terms of the effective slenderness ratio represent the practical
cases. Typical empirical formulas used to approximate test data
are shown in Fig. 11. This includes Rankine Gordon Formula.
It is not always possible to use a single formula for all values
of Le/r. Most design specifications use different formulas—each
with a definite range of applicability. In each case we must check
that the equation used is applicable for the value of Le/r for the
column involved.
Furthermore, it must be determined whether the equation
provides the critical stress for the column, to which the
appropriate factor of safety must be applied, or if it provides an
allowable stress.
