TACHEOMETRY

This is a surveying method in which both horizontal and vertical distances are determined by taking angular
observations with a tacheometer. Tacheometry is a Greek word meaning rapid/speedy measurements.

Therefore here measurements of distances are made so fast using optical properties of a telescope (ODM –
Optical distance measurement) and not chaining (Direct measurement).

Advantages of Tacheometry

 Measurements are taken above the ground and hence the poor surface measuring conditions don‘t
affect it. i.e. can be adopted for rough and difficult terrains where5 direct leveling and chaining not
possible.
 Measurements are carried out in shorter time than that required by surface taping (chain surveying)
 Has high accuracy than normal ground taping. i.e. a reasonable contour map can be prepared for the
investigated works.

Instruments employed in Tacheometry

There are basically two instruments used here, namely; tacheometer and a leveling staff/or stadia rod.

1) Tacheometer – is a transit theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm and an anallatic lens.

Where the anallatic lens is an additional lens provided in the telescope between the objective glass and
diaphragm which reduces all observations to the centre of the instrument and thus eliminating the additive
constant k (reducing the additive constant to zero).
NB. All modern internal focusing telescopes, although not strictly anallatic may be regarded as so.
Advantages

 Reduces the additive constant to zero; therefore calculations for heights and distances are simplified
say ; .
 It‘s free from moisture or dust.
 Loss of light is compensated by the use of slightly larger objective lens.

Disadvantages

 Brightness of the image is lost

 It can‘t be easily cleaned
 It‘s also a potential source of errors.

2) Leveling staff /or stadia rod – is a stave normally 4 – 5m long with graduations with a possibility
of taking about minimum reading. This leveling stave has provisions for folding
and it‘s suitable for short distance surveys.
Whereas Stadia rod is suited for longer sights, has bold and clear graduations also taken to a
minimum reading of 0.001m. It‘s also 4m long and can be folded or telescopic.
Principles of Tacheometry

It is based on the properties of an isosceles triangle as shown below, where angle is the instrument angle
called the parallactic angle.

⁄
⁄ ⁄ ( ⁄ )

( ) ⁄
The distance between the instrument and the staff is directly proportional to the staff intercept S.

The Parallatic angle may either be fixed or variable depending on the type of theodolite (tacheometer)
used. This therefore defines the five different systems of Tacheometry.

Systems of tacheometry

 Stadia system -
 Tangential system -
 Subtense system –
 Optical wedge –

Tangential system

In this system, there are two (2) telescopic pointing is made for two readings to be taken.

It is the most easily understood but the least accurate.

Procedure

 Set up a theodolite at A and take horizontal reading C at B

 Sight the staff at an angle of elevation & take the reading D
 Difference (D - C) is called a staff intercept S

Horizontal distance

If the reduced level of A is xm above datum, the reduced level of –

Stadia system

This is sometimes called the fixed hair Tacheometry because it involves the use of additional horizontal lines
or hairs marked on the diaphragm of the theodolite.

The two (2) stadia hairs or lines (upper and lower) are places equidistant, above and below the main
horizontal cross hair.

The system employs both a theodolite and staff and has one telescopic pointing with three simultaneous
reading taken (lower, middle, and upper)
The distance between the stadia hairs is fixed and is called stadia interval.

In the telescopes field of view, the stadia hairs subtend a certain length of the staff, S, called the staff
intercept.

The staff intercept(S) varies or is proportional to its distance from the instrument; and from the above
general principle, . ⁄ ( ⁄ )/ .

Basic principle of stadia system

The principle of this form of tacheometry, in which the parallactic angle 2α remains, fixed and the staff
intercept S varies with distance D, is shown above. The parallactic angle is defined by the position of the
stadia hairs, c and e, each side of the main cross-hair b, then by similar triangles:

(⁄)

NB. In modern telescopes f and i are so arranged that c = 100.

Equation (1) above is basically correct for horizontal sights taken with any modern instrument.

For Detailed examination

In stadia tacheometry the line of sight of the tacheometer may be kept horizontal or inclined depending
upon the field conditions
Three cases considered for stadia system.
In the case of horizontal line of sight (Fig. 2.6), the horizontal distance between the instrument at A and the
staff at B is where
k and c = the multiplying and additive constants of the tacheometer, and
s = the staff intercept,
– , where ST and SB are the top hair and bottom hair readings, respectively
i.e.
1. Horizontal line of sight with a vertically held staff (normal)

is the focal length of the object lens System (telescope), d is the distance from the object lens to the centre
of the instrument, ce is the stadia interval i, and D is the distance from the staff to the centre of the
instrument; then by similar triangles:
. ⁄ / (⁄)

But ( ) (⁄) ( )
The value ( f + d) is called the additive constant, K and ( f/i) is called the multiplying constant, c.

Alternatively
 ()

( ⁄ ) ( )

() ( ) ( ⁄)

( ⁄) ( ) (⁄)

(⁄) ( )

NB. - By adopting an anallatic lens in the telescope of the tacheometer, the multiplying conatant c is made
100, and the additive constant zero(0).

- The value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0 (zero), respectively, for making the computations
simpler. Thus D = 100 s
- However in some tacheometers the additive constants are not zero, but vary from 30 cm to 60cm
actually specified by the manufacturers.
- S = The staff intercept, , where and are the top hair and bottom hair readings,
respectively.

The elevations of the points,

These are determined by the height of instrument and taking the middle hair reading. Let
hi = the height of the instrument axis above the ground at A,
hA, hB = the elevations of A and B, and
SM = the middle hair reading
Then the height of instrument is

2. case 2: Inclined line of sight and staff held vertically

 are readings given by the three lines and are those which would be given if the staff
were normal to the line of sight; ⁄ ( )

( ) ⁄

Therefore

Horizontal distance

( )

Vertical distance

( )

The additive constant in modern instruments is reduced to zero, so the above formulae reduce to:

NB. When booking the vertical angle θ; the following convention is used.
 - For Elevation i.e. sight uphill; θ is positive [+ve]
- Depression i.e. sight downhill; θ is negative [-ve]
- Vertical angle; is that angle between a given direction and the horizontal plane defined by E–W
axis

Reduced levels

With reference to the Figure above it can be seen that, given the reduced level of X (RLx);
Then the level of Y ( )
If the sight had been from Y to X then a simple sketch as in Figure 2.48 will serve to show that

( )

NB.

Example

The table shows tacheometric field observations involving the two corners of a stored building, where in each
case the staff was held vertical with the instrument constants 100 and 0. Stations A and B were fixed on
previously established building corners; the reduced level of the instrument station is 150.00mAOD

Instrument Instrument Staff Bearing Vert. circle reading Staff readings

station height station
0 1.550 A 1.155, 1.755, 2.355
B 1.250, 2.000, 2.750
Calculate:

(i) The reduced level of A and B

(ii) Horizontal distance AB
(iii) Gradient AB

Solution

Horizontal distance H = CScos 2 θ  kCosθC k  0, c  100

H = 100Scos2 θ; staff intercept S = (2.355- 1.155) = 1.200m
 
H OA = 1001.200cos2 4030'  119.26m 
Horizontal distance H OB = 100Scos2 θ; k  0, c  100
staff intercept S = (2.750 - 1.250) = 1.500m
H OB = 100  1.500cos2 10 015 '   145.25m

Plot

119.26m

44059’
O
145.25m

From Cosine Rule

AB 2 = OB 2 + OA 2 - 2 × OB × OA × cosθ
AB = 145.252  119.262  2  145.25 119.26Cos44 o 59'  104.00m

Reduced levels

1
Vertical distance VOA = × 100 × 1.2 × sin(2 × 4 o 30') = 9.39m
2
1
Vertical distance VOB = × 100 × 1.5 × sin(2 × 10o15') = 26.27m
2
Rl A = Rl A  i + v - c = 150.00  1.55 + 9.39 - 1.755 = 159.185m
Rl B = Rl A  i + v - c = 150.00  1.55 + 26.27 - 2.00 = 175.82m

Gradient of AB

Differencein levels Rl - Rl A
Gradient AB = = B
Horizontal distance AB H AB
175.82  159.185 16.635 1
  
104.00 104.00 6
Gradient AB is 1 in 6
Measurements of tacheometric constants at the field
The multiplying constant (c = 100) and the additive constant (K = 0) are usually supplied with the instrument
by the manufacturer but they may vary due to ageing of the theodolite or temperature variations.
If necessity arises to check them or determine them in an old tacheometer, the following method may be
employed.
 Set up the instrument on fairly level ground giving horizontal sights to a series of pegs at known
distances, D, from the instrument.
 Using the equation and substituting values for D and S, the equations may be solved
by;
i. Simultaneously in pairs and the mean taken.
ii. As a whole by the method of least squares.

For example: given

Measured distance (m) 30 60 90 120 150 (D-values)
Staff intercept (m) 0.301 0.600 0.899 1.202 1.501 (S-values)
Determine the value of C and k

From which C = 100 and k = 0 by either of the above methods.

Errors in the region of 1/1000 can occur in the constants.

Example 2
The following readings where taken with a theodolite onto a vertical staff
Stadia readings vertical angle horizontal distance
0.796 1.024 1.251 0o 45.736
1.873 2.179 2.485 5o00‘ 61.013

Calculate the tacheometric constants

Solution

( ) ( ) ( )
()

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

Accuracy and sources of errors

The accuracy depends on the instrumental and field errors

Instrumental errors

 The value of the instrument constants may not be correct.

- Due to the error in the construction of the diaphragm.
 - Due to the assumption that modern telescopes are anallatic, when both c and k are variables.

To meet the situation, the multiplying constant of the instrument should be found out by careful
field observation before commencement of the work.

 The graduations of the staff or stadia rod may not be uniform. To eliminate, the imperfect staff or
rod should be replaced, or necessary corrections should be applied.
 The adjustment of the tacheometer may not be perfect – permanent adjustments be checked

Field errors

These are gross errors, systematic errors and include:

 Incorrect centering and leveling. To avoid ensure perfect centering, and leveling of the plate bubble
and altitude bubble.
 Wrong staff readings are more common because of the number of readings required and the fact that
interpolation of the staff graduations have to be made each time resulting to errors in the staff
intercept, S.

NB. - The reading accuracy decreases as the horizontal distance D increases and the maximum
length of a tacheometric sight should be in the range of 100 – 120m.

- The surveyor should detect gross errors by comparing the difference between the top and
the middle reading, the differences should be the same otherwise the readings must be
repeated.

Systematic errors; - Non perpendicularity of the staff is another serious source of error in D

- Differential refraction; Density of the atmosphere changes fairly rapidly closer to the earth
with a result that the lower line of sight is refracted more than the upper. To minimize this
effect, the lower staff reading should be less than 1.0 m.
- Reading the vertical circle (angle) of the theodolite with error.

Field work/procedure

 A network of ground stations to be occupied by the instrument is set out on the ground coordinated
by traversing and their RLs obtained. It must be remembered that on unrestricted sites, the
maximum distance in tacheometric observations should be between 100 – 120m.
 Set the instrument over a station, center and have all necessary adjustments done.
NB: vertical and horizontal angles are measured on only one face. (Face left)
 Measure and record the height of the trunnion axis above the station mark (Hi).
 Select a suitable station as a reference object (RO), sight the point and record the horizontal angle set
for this direction. All the detail in the radiation pattern will be fixed in relation to the direction of
RO.
NB: The direction of the RO is set to 00 if details are to be plotted from radiation or the bearing
of the RO is set if details are to be plotted from coordinates.
  The staff man takes the first position of detail, and the telescope is rotated clockwise to bisect the
staff with the vertical hair in the field of view. Read and record the upper, middle and lower hair
readings.
NB: a check can be applied to the stadia readings since the center or middle reading should be the
mean of the lower and upper reading to with in .
 Still in this direction of the detail point, read and record the vertical and horizontal angles. The angles
should be taken to the accuracy of only.
 Signal the staff man to move to the new detail point.
 The procedure is repeated until when the observations of points near the instrument position is
completed.

NB: it is better to select each detail point in a clockwise direction in order to minimize the movement of
the staff man.

Check: the final sighting before the instrument is transferred should be to the RO to check that the setting of
the horizontal circle has been altered during observations. Should any alterations be discovered, then
all the horizontal circle readings are unreliable and should be re – measured. It is therefore advisable
that, during a long tacheometric observation a sighting to the RO be made after say every 20 points
of detail.

Tacheometric field book

Various methods can be used but a suitable method for most work is as shown in the table below.

All the information in the columns of bearings, V.A, U.H & L.M, M.H and remarks are recorded in the field.
The remainders are then computed in the office at latter stage.

Vertical circle readings are those read directly on the instrument, the reduction for is then done later in the
office to determine the angle of elevation or depression.

NB: The vertical angle system of the instrument must therefore be understood at the beginning; either it
is vertical angle type or a zenith type.

A sketch is necessary during the booking. The sketch should include information such as type of vegetation,
widths of roads and railways, diameter of trees, heights and types of fences etc.

Plotting

 If radiation method is to be used then a network of control stations is first plotted on the coordinate
grid. The details and spot heights are then plotted using a protractor and a scale rule, with the
protractor oriented to the direction of RO. Each point of the detail is then plotted by scaling an
appropriate distance along each direction.
 If coordinates method is to be used then the details are plotted from their coordinates that were
computed.

The plotted points are shown on the plan by a circled dot against which is written the RL.

Using the field sketches, the details are filled in between these points and contours drawn by interpolation.
The required details are then traced out leaving out unnecessary details such as construction or plotting
marks.

Examples

An instrument at A, sighted onto vertical staff held at B and C in turn, gave the following readings in the
table below

Sight Horizontal circle Vertical circle Staff readings (m)

B 0.442 0.744 1.045
C 0.655 0.960 1.265

If the instrument constants are C = 100, K = 0, and the height of instrument 1.52m; calculate the gradient of
the straight line BC.

Solution

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

900
A

C
 √

Example 2

The following readings were taken by a theodolite from station B on to stations A, C and D.

Sight Horizontal circle Vertical circle Staff readings (m)

Top Centre Bottom
A
C 1.044 2.283 3.522
D 0.645 2.376 4.110

The line BA in Figure below has a bearing of 28°46‘ and the instrument constants are 100 and 0. Find the
slope and bearing of line CD.

Solution

( )
 ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

√ ( )

( )

Bearing CD

( )
 ( ) ( )

Example 3

The following observations were taken with a tacheometer, having constants of 100 and zero, from a point A
to B and C. The distance BC was measured as 157 m. assuming the ground to be a plane within the triangle
ABC, calculate the volume of filling required to make the area level with the highest point, assuming the sides
to be supported by vertical concrete walls. Height of instrument was 1.4 m, the staff held vertically.

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

157 m
A

√ ( )( )( )

√ ( )( )( )
 ( )

( )

Depth of fill at B = 31.44 m

Depth of fill at C =

( )

Example 4

The table shows tacheometric field observations involving the four corners of a plot, where in each case the
staff was held vertical with the instrument constants 100 and 0. Stations A and B were previously coordinated
as: A (152.48mN, 200.61mE) and B (107.55mN, 224.03mE),

Instrument Instrument Staff Bearing Vert. circle reading Staff readings

station height station
A 1.400 X 1.103, 1.403, 1.703
B 1.500 y 0.920, 1.142, 1.365
Calculate:

a) Area of the plot using the coordinate method

b) The uniform slope of line XY in the form 1: N

Solution

( ) ( )

( )

( )

√ √ ( )

( )
 ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

Example 5
The table shows tacheometric field observations that were interrupted by a sudden fall of a very big tree along
line QR, in which the surveyor had to re organize himself, technically in order to meet the intended objective.

Instrument Instrument Staff Bearing of Vert. circle reading Staff readings

station height station staff
P 1.550 Q 0.453, 1.564, 2.675
Q ? R ? ? ? ?
R 1.450 P 1.004, 2.503, 4.004
Calculate the uniform slope of line QR in the form of 1 in N, taking the instrument constants as 100 and 0
Solution
Q

′
á ′′

( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

From sine rule;

( )

( )
Reduced levels
Of Q;

( )
Of R is got from

( )

Slope of line QR

( )

Example 6
Readings were taken on a vertical staff held at points A, B and C with a tacheometer whose constants were
100 and 0. If the horizontal distances from instrument to staff were respectively 45.9, 63.6 and 89.4 m, and
the vertical angles likewise +5°, +6° and –5°, calculate the staff intercepts. If the mid-hair reading was 2.100
m in each case, what was the difference in level between A, B and C?
(Answer: SA = 0.462, SB = 0.642, SC = 0.900, B is 2.670 m above A, C is 11.835 m below A)

Solution

( )

( )
 ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )
Example 4
A theodolite has a multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of zero. When set
1.35 m above station B, the following readings were obtained.
The coordinates of A are E 163.86, N 0.0, and those of B, E 163.86, N 118.41. Find the coordinates of C and
its height above datum if the level of B is 27.3 m AOD.
(Answer: E 2.64 N 0.0, 101.15 m AOD)

Tachometer

with a stadia constant 100 and an additive constant of zero was set up at station P and the following
observations were taken to a vertically held staff .

Station observed Bearings Vertical Circle Stadia readings

A N30o 50’E 83o20’ 2.824 3.220 3.616
B S60o45’E -7o10’ 2. 067 2.467 2.877

Given that, the elevation of station P = 650.65m, instrument height 1.425m.

Calculate

The horizontal distance AB

The level difference between A & B

The ground slopes PA and PB and express them as percentages