DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA, KATSINA STATE

PHY111 – GENERAL PHYSICS 1: MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER (2 CU)

1.0 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Units

Physics being an experimental science is concerned with measurements, and we use numbers to

describe the results of measurements. Any number that is used to describe a physical

phenomenon quantitatively is called a physical quantity. Definitions for physical quantities

often follow the procedures for their measurements. For example, velocity is the displacement

divided by the time taken to cover the displacement.

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical

quantity.

To make accurate, reliable measurements, we need units of measurements that do not change and

that can be duplicated by observers in various locations. The system of units used by scientists

and engineers around the world is commonly called “the metric system”, but since 1960 it has

been known officially as International System, or S.I (the abbreviation for its French name,

Système International).

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There are seven (7) SI base units from which all other SI units can be derived. The base units are:

Quantity Unit Abbreviation

Length metre m

Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Electric current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Luminous intensity Candela cd

Amount of substance Mole mol.

Examples of some derived units:

Quantity Derivation Unit Abbreviation

Velocity metre per second ms – 1

Volume cubic metre m3

Force newton N

Pressure newton per square Nm-2

2
 metre

Work newton-metre or joule Nm or J

Question: List 22 derived units with special names which are dimensionless.

S/No Name Symbol Quantity

1. Hertz Hz Frequency

2. Radian rad Angle

3. Steradian Sr Solid angle

4. Newton N Force, weight

5. Pascal Pa Pressure, stress

6. Joule J Energy, work, heat

7. Watt W Power, radiant flux

8. Coulomb C Electric charge or quantity electricity

9. Volt V Voltage, electric potential difference, emf

10. Farad F Electric capacity

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11. Ohm Ω Electric resistance, impedance, reactance

12. Siemens S Electric conductance

13. Weber Wb Magnetic flux

14. Tesla T Magnetic field strength, magnetic flux density

15. Henry H Inductance

16. Degree Celcius °C Temperature

17. Lumen lm Luminous flux

18. Lux lx Illuminance

19. Becquerel Bq Radioactivity (decay per unit time)

20. Gray Gy Absorbed dose

21. Sievert Sv Equivalent dose

22. Katal kat Catalytic activity

DIMENSION

The dimensions of a physical quantity is the way it is related to the fundamental quantities of

mass (M), length (L) and time (T). Applications of dimension are:

 To verify the correctness of a physical equation, e.g. S = ut + ½ at2.

 To derive the unit of physical quantity.

 To derive the exact form of a relationship between measured physical quantities.

Examples on Dimensions
4
1. Derive the dimensions of the following:

i. Acceleration

ii. Surface tension

iii. Pressure

iv. Coefficient of viscosity

v. Universal gravitational constant

Solution

i. Acceleration =

[ ]

ii. Surface tension =

[ ]

iii. Pressure =

[ ]

iv. Coefficient of viscosity =

[ ]

v.

[ ]

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2. The period of a simple pendulum, T depends on the mass of the bob, M, the length of the

thread, l, and the acceleration due to gravity, g. Use the method of dimension to find the

expression for the period of oscillation, T.

Solution

Suppose that T = kmxlygz

Where x, y, z and k are unknown numbers and k is a constant of proportionality.

The dimensions of g are LT – 2

taking the dimension on either side

T = MxLy (LT – 2)z

MoLoT1 = MxLy + z T – 2z

Equating the indices of M, L and T on both sides gives

0 = x, 0 = y + z and 1 = - 2z

z = - ½ , y = ½ and x = 0

⁄ ⁄
Thus,

So simplifying, we have

√⁄

But K = 2π,

Hence, T = 2π√ ⁄

3. The period of vibration of liquid surface of a drop depends on the density, radius and surface

tension of the liquid. Use dimensional analysis or otherwise to deduce an expression for the

dependence of the period of vibration of a liquid on these quantities.

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 Solution

Suppose that T = kρxryγz

Where x,y,z and k are unknown numbers and k is a constant of proportionality.

Recall that ρ is density and γ is surface tension.

The dimension of ρ is ML-3

The dimension of γ is MT-2

taking the dimension on either side

T = (ML-3)xLy(MT-2)z

M0L0T1 = Mx + z L-3x+y T-2z

Equating the indices of M, L and T on both sides gives

0 = x + z, 0 = -3x + y, 1 = -2z

z = - ½ , x = ½ , y = 3/2

So that, and thus, √

4. State the SI units and dimensions of the following quantities: viscosity, specific heat

capacity, density and pressure.

Solution

Quantity S.I Unit Dimension

Viscosity Kgm-1s-1 (Nsm-2) ML-1T-1

Specific heat capacity Jkg-1K-1 L2T-2θ-1

density kgm-3 ML-3

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 pressure Pa (Nm-2) ML-1T-2

5. The force of capillary in plant is given by , where γ is the coefficient of the surface

tension. Is the equation correct or not? Justify the answer.

6. Given the Van der Waal‟s equation of state ( ) , evaluate the units and

dimensions of the constants a, b and R, where P is pressure, V is volume and T is the absolute

temperature.

7. Show that the equations (a) v = u + at (b) v2 = u2sin2θ – 2gs are dimensionally correct. All

symbols have their usual meanings.

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SCALAR AND VECTORS

Physical quantities that are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into two

categories. The quantity is either a scalar or a vector.

 Scalars are physical quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical

value) alone. For example, distance, speed, energy (work), power, pressure, time, mass,

temperature, density, volume are all scalar quantities.

 Vectors are physical quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a

direction. For example, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force (weight), moment,

momentum, electric current, and torque are all vector quantities.

When vectors are written, they are represented by a single letter in bold type or with an arrow

above the letter, such as A or ⃗ .

Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector pointing in a given direction. In a Cartesian system the three unit vectors

are called ̂, ̂ and ̂ .

𝑘̂

𝑖 𝑗

Fig. 2.0: An illustration of common choice of unit vectors in a Cartesian coordinate system.

Based on „right-hand rule‟ mathematically,

̂= ̂ × ̂ (i.e. cross product).

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Vector components

Every vector may be expressed as the sum of its n unit vectors e.g.

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

where ax, ay and az are called the vector components of vector ⃗.

Vector Algebra

Negation

1 5𝐴⃗

𝐴⃗

𝐴⃗

Fig. 2.1: Illustration of vector negation and scalar multiplication.

Considering a vector represented graphically by an arrow, the negative of a vector would be

represented by a vector of the same length but opposite direction.

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂

Scalar Multiplication

k⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ , where k is a scalar.

Note that vector negation is merely multiplication by a scalar, where that scalar is – 1.

Addition
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗

𝐴⃗
Fig 2.2: Illustration of head-to-tail addition
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Two vectors can be added graphically as shown in fig 2.2

⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )( ̂ ̂ ̂)

̂ ( )̂ ̂

Vector addition is cumulative:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Vector addition is also associative:

(⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Dot Product or Inner Product

The scalar product of two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ is denoted by ⃗ ⃗ and is given by:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ,

where θ is the angle between ⃗ and ⃗.

⃗ √

⃗ √

Note:

1. If ⃗ is parallel to ⃗, then cos θ = 1, and if ⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗ then cos θ = 0

Hence,

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ 1 ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

Using the above therefore, it can be shown that:

⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

2. The result of scalar or dot product is a scalar

3. Dot product has all the usual properties of products, such as associativity, commutativity, and

the distributive property.

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Cross Product (or outer Product)

⃗ ⃗
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗

𝐵⃗
θ
𝐴⃗

Fig 2.3: The vector product ⃗ ⃗ determined the right-hand rule.

The vector product of ⃗ and ⃗ denoted by ⃗ ⃗, and this product is itself a vector.

Also, the vector product is given by:

⃗ ⃗= ⃗ ⃗

where θ is the angle between ⃗ and ⃗.

Applying this definition to vectors, we find the following relationships:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ y
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ 𝑗̂
And ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
o
𝑘̂ 𝑖̂
z x

In terms components, we have

⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

( )̂ ̂ ̂

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Also, the vector product can be expressed in determinant form as:

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ | |

Examples on scalars and vectors

1. Find the angle between two vectors ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

Solution

Recall that
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1

⃗ ⃗

From (1) and (2)

⃗ ⃗

where 1 1

⃗ √ 1 √1 ; ⃗ √ 1 √ 1

Hence 1
√ √

Or using ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂
Or ⃗ ⃗
1
√ √ √ √ √ √

2. A rocket fires two engines simultaneously. One produces a thrust of 725N directly forward,

while the other gives a 513N at 32.4° above the forward direction. Find the magnitude and

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 direction (relative to the forward direction) of the resultant force that these engines exert on

the rocket.

Exercise 1:

Given two vectors ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ 1 ̂ ̂

(a) Find the magnitude of each vector

(b) Write an expression for the vector difference ⃗ ⃗ , using unit vectors.

(c) Find the magnitude of the vectors difference ⃗ ⃗ . Is this the same as the magnitude of

⃗ ⃗? Explain.

Exercise 2:

In the methane molecule, CH4, each hydrogen atom is at a corner of a regular tetrahedron with

the carbon atom at the centre. In coordinates where one of the C-H bonds is in the direction of

̂ ̂ ̂ , an adjacent C-H bond is in the ̂ ̂ ̂ direction. Calculate the angle between these

two bonds.

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 2.0 LINEAR MOTION

Linear motion describes an object or a body moving along a straight path or line. To describe this

motion, physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration will be introduced.

Displacement : This is the distance travelled or covered in a specified or constant direction,

hence, it is a vector quantity and it is measured in metre

Velsocity : This is the time rate of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity, and it is

measured in metre per second .

For an object moving from point say P1 to P2 as shown below:

P1 P2

x1 x2

The average velocity in the - component or the average - velocity is given by

Where t1 is the time at x1 and t2 is the time at x2

𝑥 (m) P2
Slope = 𝑥 - Velocity

P1
O
t1 t2 t(s)

The average -velocity depends only on the total displacement, – that occurs

during the time interval – .

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Instantaneous Velocity:

This is the limit of the average velocity as time interval approaches zero; it equals the

instantaneous rate of change of position with time. Hence, instantaneous x-velocity is given by

Note: Speed and velocity are often used interchangeably; how speed denote time rate of change

of distance. It does not specify the direction but velocity on the other hand specify

direction.

Example

A tiger is crouched 20m to the east of an observer‟s vehicle. At time t=0, the tiger charges an

antelope and begins to run along a straight line. During the first 2.0s of the attack, the tiger‟s

coordinate x varies with time according to equation x = 20m + (5.0m/s2)t2.

a. Find the displacement of the tiger between t1 = 1.0s and t2 = 2.0s.

b. Find the average velocity during the same time interval.

c. Find the instantaneous velocity at time t1 = 1.0s by taking Δt = 0.1s, then Δt = 0.01s, then

Δt = 0.001s.

d. Derive a general expression for instantaneous velocity as a function of time, and from it

find vx at t = 1.0s and t = 2.0s.

Solution

Given x = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)t2

a. At time t1 = 1.0s, the tiger‟s position x1 is

x1= 20m + (5.0 m/s2)(1.0)2 = 25m

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 At time t2 = 2.0s, the position x2 is 40m

the displacement during the interval, Δx = x2 – x1 = 15m

b. The average x-velocity during this interval is given by

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c. With Δt = 0.01s, the time interval is from t1 = 1.0s to t2 = 1.1s, at time t2, the position is

x2 = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)(1.1)2 = 26.05m

The average x-velocity during this interval is

5 5
1 5 ⁄
11 1

Also with Δt = 0.01s, the time interval is from t1 = 1.0s to t2 = 1.01s. At t2

x2 = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)(1.01)2 = 25.1005m

The average x-velocity during this interval is

51 5 5
1 5 ⁄
1 1 1

Similar with Δt=0.001s, vav-x = 10.005m/s

as Δt gets smaller, the average x-velocity gets closer to 10.0m/s, so we can conclude

that the instantaneous x-velocity at time t = 1.0s is 10m/s.

d. Given that x = 20m + (5.0 m/s2)t2, the instantaneous velocity 1 ⁄

So, at t = 1.0s, vx= 10m/s and similarly at t = 2.0s, vx = 20m/s

Example

A car is stopped at a traffic light. It then travels along a straight road so that its distance from the

light is given by x(t) = bt2 – ct3, where b = 2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3

a. Calculate the average velocity of the car for the time interval t = 0 to t = 10.0s.

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 b. Calculate the instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 0, t = 5.0s and t = 10.0s

c. How long after starting from rest is the car again at rest?

Solution

Given x(t) = bt2 – ct3, where b = 2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3

a. 1

b. vx = 2bt2 – 3ct3

at t = 0, vx = 0; at t = 5.0s, vx = 15.0m/s; at t = 10.0s, vx = 12.0m/s

c. The car will come to rest again when vx = 0

vx = 2bt2 – 3ct3 =0 or t = 13.3s

AVERAGE AND INSTANTENEOUS ACCELERATION

Acceleration describes the time rate of change of velocity

For average x-acceleration, aav-x, we have

(2.3)

Similarly, the instantaneous acceleration ax is given by

The unit of average acceleration is meter per second per second or ms-2 or m/s2 (commonly read

metre per second squared).

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vx
P2
Slope = aav-x
Slope y tangent to vx 𝑡 graph at a given point
= instantaneous x-acceleration at that point
P1

O t

Fig: A graph of motion

Consider the graph or motion above, the average x-acceleration, Slope of

line P1P2.

Similarly, the instantaneous x-acceleration at any point in the graph is equal to the slope

of the tangent of the curve at that point. We can also learn about acceleration of a body from a

graph of its position versus time, so that

and , hence

( ) 5

Now, replacing aav-x by ax in the expression

Suppose t1 = 0 with vox as the initial velocity, and with vx as the velocity at t2 = t

, or

vx = vox + axt (for constant x-acceleration only) (2.7)

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It can also be shown that

x = xo + voxt + ½ at2 (2.8)

where xo is the position at t = 0, x is position at time = t.

The graph of the above equation (i.e. x-t graph) is always a parabola. From (2.7), solving for t

and substituting into (2.8) we have

vx2 = vox2 + 2ax(x – xo) (2.9)

from the equation , and , it can be shown that

( ) 1

Eq (2.10) is useful when ax is constant but its value is unknown.

Equations (2.7), (2.8), (2.9) and (2.10) are the equations of motion with constant acceleration.

A special case of motion with constant x-acceleration occurs when the x-acceleration is zero.

The x-velocity is then constant, and the equations of motion become

vx = vox = constant

x = xo + vxt (2.11)

Example

A motorcyclist heading east through a small city accelerated after he passed the signpost marking

the city limits. His acceleration is a constant 4.0m/s2. At time t = 0 he is 5.0m east of the signpost

moving east at 15m/s.

a. Find his position and velocity at time t = 2.0s

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 b. Where is the motorcyclist when his velocity is 25m/s?

Solution

a. Using x = xo + voxt + ½ at2

= 5.0m + (15m/s)(2.0s) + ½ (4.0m/s2)(2.0s)2

= 43m

Also, using vx = vox + axt

= 15m/s + (4.0m/s2)(2.0s)

=23m

b. To find x when vx = 25m/s, using

vx2 = vox2 + 2ax(x-xo) or

5 ⁄ 15 ⁄
5 55
⁄

FREELY FALLING BODIES

Free fall is a case of motion with constant acceleration, and we denote the magnitude of this

acceleration with the letter „g‟. g is given an approximate value of 9.8m/s2 or 10m/s2 at or near

the earth‟s surface.

Example

A ball is dropped from a height of 20m and rebounds with a velocity which is ¾ of the velocity

with which it hit the ground. What is the time interval between the first and second bounces?

Example

The distance x in metres covered by a particle at time t seconds is given by x = 2t3 – 3t2 – 5t, find

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 i. Its speed in the 5th second

ii. The distance covered in the 3rd second

iii. The time the particle is momentarily at rest

iv. The acceleration at t = 5.0s

Example

An aeroplane flying horizontally with a speed of 396 Km/hr releases a bomb at a height of 500m

from the ground. When and where will the bomb strike the ground?

Solution

h = 500m, u = 396km/hr = 110m/s, a = g = 10m/s2

110m/s
Considering the upward motion, we have

sy = voyt + ½ gt2
Sy=500m
But uy = 0

Sy = ½ gt2

Sx=vox × t
so that 1

or √1 1

We consider motion in the horizontal direction. Thus, sx = voxt + ½ axt2

But ax = 0, therefore sx = voxt

So that, sx = 110 × 10 = 1100m

The bomb reaches the ground after 10s and strikes the ground at a distance of 1100m.

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3.0 CIRCULAR MOTION

This is a motion of a body of mass, m in a circular path of radius, r.

Fig. 3.1: Circular motion

Consider an object moving in a circle with a uniform speed round a fixed point O as centre, Fig.

3.1. It angular speed, ω, about O which is defined as the change in angle displacement per

second is given by

The angle θ is measured in radians (2π radians = 360°), hence the angular speed is measured in

radians per second (rads-1).

The period of the motion, T is given by

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Since 2π radians is the angle in 1 revolution (360°), if s is the length of the arc AB, then or

(3.3)

Now, for a rotating body, speed v is given by

Combining (3.3) and (3.4) and from the definition in (3.1) we have

(3.5)

The centripetal acceleration of the object in fig. 3.1which is always directed towards the centre

of the circle just as the force is given by:

or

The S.I unit of centripetal acceleration is radians per second per second (rad.s-2).

CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

These are forces acting on a body moving round in a circle. Centripetal force is the force acting

on a body moving in a circle and directed towards the centre, it is given by

(3.7)

Centripetal force is the force acting on a body moving in a circle and directed towards the centre.
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Proof of acceleration in a circle

Consider an object of mass m moving around a circle of radius r metres as shown in the figure

below:

𝑣𝐵⃗
𝑣𝐴⃗

𝑅 𝑣𝐴
𝑄
𝜃
𝑣
𝑣𝐵

The length of the arc

Suppose it takes the object time to transverse the length, then

or (3.8)

Now, since the magnitude of velocities at point A and B are the same, then change in velocity PR

is (3.9)

So that 1

From where we have

11

25
Thus, centripetal force from equation 3.7 becomes

Example

An object of mass 5 kg is whirled round a horizontal circle of radius 5m with uniform speed of

5ms-1by a revolving string inclined to the vertical; calculate the tension in the string inclined to

the vertical; calculate the tension in the string and the angle of inclination of the string to the

vertical.

Solution

Given, m = 5 kg, a = 9.8 m/s2, r = 5m, v = 5m/s

The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of the tension, T given by

For equilibrium, the vertical component of the tension will be equal to the weight of the object

(3.14)

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Dividing eq. (3.13) by eq. (3.14), we have

15

Or

5
5

From eqn. (3.13), the tension T in the string is

5 5
55 5
5

Exercise

An object of mass 10kg is whirled round a horizontal circle of radius 4m by a revolving string is

inclined to the vertical. If the uniform speed of the object is 5ms-1, calculate

i. The tension in the string.

ii. The angle of inclination of the string to the vertical. Ans: i. 118N ii. 32°

RELATIVE VELOCITY

The velocity of a body A relative to another body B is simply the difference between the velocity

of A and the velocity of B, i.e. ( ⃗ ⃗ ), similarly the relative velocity of B relative to A is .

(⃗ ⃗ ).

27
4.0 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir ISAAC NEWTON in 1687 published a work called Principa Mathematica, in which he set

out clearly the laws of mechanics. He gave three laws of motion:

Law 1: Energy body continues to be in a state of rest or to move with uniform velocity unless a

resultant force acts on it.

Law 2: The time rate of change in momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and it

takes place in the direction of the applied force.

Law 3: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction.

Newton‟s first law of motion expresses the idea of inertia, the inertia of a body is its reluctance

to start moving, and its reluctance to stop after it has begun moving.

Momentum

The momentum, P of a body is defined as the product of its mass and the velocity. It is given by

(4.1)

The S.I unit of momentum is kgms-1 (or Ns). It is vector quantity.

Now, from Newton‟s second law of motion;

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Where k is a constant. Experimentally, it can be shown that K=1, so that eqn. (4.3) becomes

Recall that , hence eqn. (4.4) becomes

(4.5)

Eqn. (4.5) is a fundamental equation in mechanics (dynamics). The S.I unit of force is Newton

(N).

The Newton is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1ms -2. In an

elaborate form, eqn. (4.5) can be written as

∑⃗ ⃗

∑⃗ ⃗ ∑⃗ ∑⃗

Eqn. (4.7) is so because this set of component equations is equivalent to the single vector in eqn.

(4.6).

WEIGHT AND MASS

The weight of a body is defined as the force acting on it due to gravitational pull, or gravity. It is

measured in Newton (N).

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The weight and the mass of a body are related by

Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

(4.8)

The mathematical statement of Newton‟s third law is

⃗ ⃗

Eqn. (4.9) implies that each of the two forces act on the same body.

Examples

1. An electron (mass 9.11×10-31kg) leaves one end of the TV picture tube with zero initial speed

and travels in a straight line to the accelerating grid, which is 1.80cm away. It reaches the

grid with a speed of 3.00×106m/s. If the accelerating force is constant, compute

a. The acceleration

b. The time to reach the grid

c. The net force, in Newton (you can ignore the gravitational force on the electron)

2. An object of mass 5kg is suspended from a spring balance which is attached to a ceiling of a

lift. If the spring balance is calibrated in S.I units of force. What will be the reading on the

balance when:

i. The lift is stationary

ii. The lift is moving upwards with an acceleration of 0.2m/s2

iii. If incidentally the lift cable breaks and the lift falls freely with an acceleration due to

gravity.

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 Solution

i. For a stationary state of the lift

T = mg = 5 × 10 = 50N

ii. For upwards motion of lift with acceleration 0.2m/s2

T – mg = ma or T = m(g + a) = 51.0N

iii. Downward motion of lift with a = 0.2m/s2

Mg – T = ma or T = m(g – a) = 49.0N

iv. Free fall

mg – T = mg

3. A car of mass 1000kg is moving up a hill inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The total frictional

force on the car is 1000N. Calculate the force P due to the engine when the car is

a. Accelerating at 2m/s2

b. Moving with a steady velocity of 15m/s

𝑅
𝑃
Solution

𝐹 1000N

𝑚𝑔
a. W = mg = 1000N. The resultant upward force, F = P – W (downward) – frictional force

But downward weight, W = mgcosθ = 5000N, and F = ma = 1000 × 2 = 2000N

Therefore, 2000N = P – 5000N – 1000N

Or P = 8000N.

b. Since velocity is steady, acceleration ax = 0, so the resultant force, F = 0

Therefore, P = 5000N + 1000N = 6000N

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CHANGE IN MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Recall that momentum = mass × velocity, hence

change in momentum, – (4.9)

from eq (4.4)

Or change in momentum (4.10)

The quantity is called the impulse on the body.

It can also be shown that

Example

A hose ejects water at a speed of 20cm/s through a hole of area 100cms2. If the water strikes a

wall normally, calculate the force on the wall in Newtons assuming the velocity of the water

normal to the wall is zero after collision.

Solution

Volume per second = area × velocity = 100 × 20 = 2000cm3

Therefore, mass per second = 2000g/s = 2kgs-1

Velocity change = 20 – 0 = 20cm/s = 0.2m/s

Therefore, Force on wall = change in momentum per second = 2 × 0.2 = 0.40N

32
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

This states that, if no external forces act on a system of colliding objects, the total momentum of

the objects in a given direction before collision is equal to the total momentum in the same

direction after collision.

i.e. for two objects, A and B

Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

maua + mbub = mava + mbvb (4.11)

If the two objects coalesce after collision then

maua + mbub = (ma + mb)v (4.12)

where v is the common velocity

Example

A snooker ball X of mass 0.3kg moving with velocity 5m/s, hits a stationary ball Y of mass

0.4kg. Y moves off with a velocity of 2m/s at 30° to the initial direction of X. Find the velocity

of X and its direction after hitting Y.

Solution

33
 i. In initial direction of x, from conservation of momentum

0.3vxcosθ + 0.4×2cos30° = 0.3 × 0.5

Or 0.3vxcosθ = 0.8 (i)

ii. Along z, 90° to the initial x direction, initial momentum = 0

i.e. 0.4 × 2sin30° - 0.3 × vxsinθ = 0

or 0.3v x sinθ = 0.4 (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) we have θ = 27°, also, from (ii) vx = 3.0m/s

ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION

In elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy is conserved; while in inelastic collision,

only momentum is conserved but kinetic energy in not conserved.

Thus for elastic collision between two objects of m1 and m2 with initial velocities of u1 and u2,

and final velocities of v1 and v2 after collision, we have

(Momentum conservation) and

(Kinetic energy conservation)

Example

A bullet A of mass 0.1kg travelling at 200m/s embeds itself in a wooden block B of mass 0.9kg

moving in opposite direction at 20m/s. Calculate the velocity of the block and the bullet when

the bullet come to rest inside the block and state the principle you used in the calculation.

34
Solution

Given: mA = 0.1kg, uA = 200m/s, mB = 0.9kg, uB = 20m/s, v = ?

Using mAuA + mBuB = (mA + mB)v or v = 2.0m/s. The principle used is the principle of

conservation.

Exercise

1. An α-particle having a speed of 1.0×106m/s collides with a stationary proton which gains an

initial speed of 1.60×106m/s in the direction in which the α-particle is travelling. What is the

speed of the α-particle immediately after collision? How much energy is gained by the proton

in the collision?

It is known that this collision is perfectly elastic. Explain what this means

(mα = 6.64×10-22 kg, mp = 1.66 × 10-27kg).

Ans: 6 × 105m/s, 2.1 × 10-15J

2. An object of mass 0.8kg moving with a velocity of 5.0m/s collides with an object of mass

0.2kg moving in opposite direction with a velocity of 3.0m/s. After impact, the two bodies

unit and move with a common velocity, v. Calculate the

(a) Value of

(b) Loss in kinetic energy

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION

The coefficient of restitution „e‟ of two colliding objects is a fractional value representing the

ratio of speeds after and before an impact, taken the line of the impact. It is defined as the ratio of

35
the relative speed after collision to the relative speed before a head-on collision. It is given by

this expression:

For two colliding objects, the coefficient of restitution is given by:

Where is the final velocity of the first object after impact

is the final velocity of the second object after impact

is the initial velocity of the first object before impact

is the initial velocity of the second object before impact

For an object bouncing off a stationary object such as a floor:

Where v is the scalar velocity of the object after impact, u is the scalar velocity of the object

before impact.

The coefficient can be found for an object bouncing off a stationary object, such as a floor with:

Where h bounce height and H is the drop height

36
Example
A 5kg mass moving at 6m/s makes a head-on collision with a 4kg mass travelling at 3m/s.
Assuming that there are no external forces acting on the system, what are the velocities of the
two masses after impact. (Assume that the coefficient of restitution e is 0.5)

Solution

Using conservation of linear momentum

maua + mbub = mava + mbvb, we have

5 × 6 + 4 × - 3 = 5 × va + 4 × vb

Or 5va + 4 vb = -9 (i)

Also,

Or vb – va = 4.5 (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii), we have

vb = 1.5m/s and va = -3m/s

Example

A particle of mass m impacts a smooth wall at at an angle of 30° to the vertical. The

particle rebounds with a speed at 90° to the original direction and in the same plane as the

impact trajectory. What is

37
 (i) The value of the constant „k‟?

(ii) The coefficient of restitution between the wall and the particle?

(iii) The magnitude of the impulse of the wall on the particle?

Solution

i. There is no momentum change parallel to the wall.

or √

ii.

iii. Impulse is the change in momentum. Since the vertical unit vectors are unchanged,

the momentum change just concerns the horizontal vector components, hence,

Exercise

a. A ball is dropped from a height H onto a stationary surface and rebounds back to a height h.

Show that √

b. A properly inflated basket-ball should have a coefficient of restitution of 0.85. When dropped

from a height of 1.2m above the solid wood floor, to what height should a properly inflated

basketball bounce?

c. The height of first bounce is h. if e is constant, show that the height of the nth bound is h n =

e2nH.

d. If e is constant, what is the height of the eight bounce of a properly inflated basketball

dropped from 1.2m? (Ans: (b) 0.87m (d) 0.089m)

38
5.0 GRAVITATION

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

This states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts each other particles with a force

that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely

proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Translating this into an equation, we have

(5.1)

Where Fg is the magnitude of the gravitational force on either particle, m1 and m2 are their

masses, r is the distance between them. G is the fundamental physical constant called the

gravitational constant and is given by G = 6.67 x 10-11Nm2kg-2

The weight of a body of mass m at the earth‟s surface is given by

(5.2)

Or (5.3)

Gravitation Potential Energy

Consider a body of mass m outside the earth, and we first compute the work W grav done by the

gravitational force when the body moves directly away or toward the centre of the earth from r =

r1 to r = r2.

This work is given by

∫ (5.4)
39
Where Fr is the radial component of the gravitational force ⃗ . Because ⃗ points directly inward

towards the centre of the earth, Fr is negative, i.e.

(5.5)

Substitute Eq(5.5) into Eq(5.4), get

∫ (5.6)

From Eq(5.6), the appropriate definition for gravitational potential energy is

(5.7)

Example

A satellite of mass 1000kg mores in a circular orbit of radius 7000km round the earth, assumed

to be a sphere of radius 6400km. Calculate the total energy needed to place the satellite in orbit

from the earth, assuming g = 10Nkg-1 at the earth‟s surface.

Solution

Let the energy needed to launch a satellite of mass m from the earth‟s surface of radius, re into an

orbit of radius, ro be

W = increase in potential energy and kinetic energy

= (Since 1/2mv2 =

= (Since )
40
 = ( )

= 1000 x 10( 1 )

= 3.5 x 1010J

Example

A geostationary satellite of mass 250kg is place in a parking orbit at height, h above the surface

of the earth.

(a) Derive the expression for h

(b) Calculate the change in energy when the satellite falls through a distance of 2.5km at an

altitude of 600km.

Solution

(a)
r
Re
R h
O

Now, r = Re + h

For equilibrium, the centripetal force of the satellite must be equal to the gravitational force

between the earth and satellite. So that

But Gme =

41
 

= ( 1)

(c) Let the initial and final energy of the satellite be E1 and E2.

Then E1 = 1/2m 2
and E2 = 1/2m 2

Change in energy, E = E1 – E2

1 2
= /2 (r12 – r22)

Where r1 = Re + h = 6.371 x 106 + 600000 = 6.971 x 106m

r2 = Re + (600 – 2.5) x 103 = 6.7685 x 106m

E = 1 /2 m 2
(r1 – r2)(r1 + r2)

= 1 /2 x x ( ) (r1 – r2)(r1 + r2)

= 1/2 x 250 x ( ) (6.871 – 6.9685) x 106 x (6.871 + 6.9685) x 106

= 2.307 x 104J

42
Variation of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’on the Earth’s surface

Fig 5.1: Variation of „g‟

The figure above shows the variation of g with distance from the centre of a sphere or earth. The

value of g increase towards the centre of the earth, and it is maximum at r = r e (radius of the

earth).

Reasons ‘g’ varies on the earth surface

(1) The elliptical shape of the earth

(2) The rotation of earth about its axis

(3) The variation in the density of the earth

(4) The variation in longitudes and latitudes

(5) The variation in height or altitude

43
Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion

1. The planets describe ellipses about the sun as one focus

2. The line joining the sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

3. The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are directly proportional to the

cubes of their mean distances from the sum.

i.e. T2 R3

Proof of T2 R3
Planet, m

The force on planet m is given by

(i)

where is the mass of the planet

is the radius of the circle

ω is the angular speed of the motion

But (ii)

44
Eq (i) becomes

F= (iii)

This equation (iii) is equal to the force of attraction of the sun on the planet.

Assuming an inverse – square law for the distance, r then

Force on the planet = (iv)

Where k is a constant

Hence , (iv) = (iii)

or

T2 =

T2 R3

Since K, are constant

45
6.0 WORK AND POWER

When a force acts on any object, we can define the work done W as the product of the force, F

and the displacement, s in the direction of the force.

i.e. (6.1)

Work is a scalar quantity, and it is measured in Newton – metre (Nm) or Joule (J).

Now, if the force, F is inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal as shown in the diagram below

θ A
O
s

(6.2)

Energy and Work

When work is done on an object, energy is transferred. If there is no energy loss, the amount of

energy is equal to the work done. Hence, energy is also a scalar quantity and also measured in

Joule (J).

Kinetic Energy

This is the energy possess by a body by the virtue of its motion

Kinetic energy of mass = F x s (6.3)

Suppose α is the acceleration produced, then F = ma or from , for Vox = 0, then

,
46
Hence kinetic energy = 1/2 x mass x speed2 = (6.4)

Gravitational potential energy

This is the energy possessed by a body by the virtue of its position. It is given by

change in gravitational potential energy (6.5)

Where h is the vertical height change

Power

This is defined as the time rate at which work is done.

When a quantity of work ∆W is done during a time interval ∆t, the average work done per unit

time or average power Pav is defined to be

(6.6)

Also, the instantaneous power P is given by

(6.7)

- The SI unit of power is watt (W). 1W = 1Js-1 and 1 horse power (hp) = 746W = 0.746kW.

Power is a scalar quantity.

- The kilowatt – hour (kW.h) is the usual commercial unit of electrical energy. 1kWh is the

total work done in 1hour (3600s) when the power is 1kilowatt (103J/s), so

1kW.h = (103J/s)(3600s) = 3.6 x 106J = 3.6MJ

47
Principle of conservation of energy

This states that the total energy in a closed system is always constant.

Example

A horizontal force of 2000N is applied to a vehicle of mass 400kg which is initially at rest on a

horizontal surface. If the total force opposing motion is constant at 800N, calculate (i) the

acceleration of the vehicle (ii) the kinetic energy of the vehicle 5s after the force is first applied

(iii) the total power developed 5s after the force is first applied.

Solution

(i) Resultant force FR = FH – Fr = ma

=> a =

(ii) K.E = 1/2mv2

But v = u + at

v = 0 + 3 x 5 = 15m/s

K.E = 1/2 x 400 x 152 = 45KJ

(iii) Power =

= F.v

= 2000 x 15

= 30,000W or 30kW

48
Example

Each of the two jet engines in a Boeing 767 airliner develops a thrust (a forward force on the

airline) of 197,000N. When the airplane is flying at 250m/s, what horsepower does such engine

develop?

Solution

Power = F.v

= 197000N x 250m/s

= 4.93 x 107W

= (4.93 x 107W) = 66,000hp

Conservative and non-conservative forces

A conservative force is a force with the property that the work done in moving a particle between

two points is independent of the path taken. Examples of conservative forces are: gravitational

force or gravity, elastic force, magnetic force.

The work done by a conservative force always has four properties:

1. It can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential –

energy function.

2. It is reversible

3. It is independent of the part of the body and depends only on the starting and ending

points (position of the body)

49
 4. When the starting and ending points are the same, the total work is zero.

Non – conservative force on the other hand, the mechanical energy that is lost (not conserved)

has to go somewhere else, by conservation of energy of energy. Examples of non – conservative

forces are friction, air resistance.

Exercise

(1) An engine of 20 kilowatts power is used to pump water from a mine 100metres deep.

Calculate the quantity of water in kilolitres which it can pump out in one hour.

(2) The human heart forces 80cm3 of blood per second through the arteries under a pressure

of 12.5cmHg. Calculate the power of the heart in watts. Density of mercury is

13600kgm3.

Solution

(1) Power = 20kW = 20,000watts

Work done in one second = 20,000J

Work done in 3600seconds = 20,000 x 3600

= 7.2 x 107J (i)

Let the mass of the water pumped out be m(kg) and h = 100m

Total Work done = mgh = m x 10 x 100

= 1000mJ (ii)

Equating eq (i) and eq(ii)

7.2 x107J = 1000mJ

Or m = 7.2 x 104kg

50
 Volume of water pumped out in one hour

= 7.2 x 104kg x

= 7.2 x 104 litres or 7.2kilolitres

(2) P = 12.5cmHg = ρgh = 13600 x 10 x 12.5 x 10-3

= 1.7 x 104Nm-2

Volume of blood pumped per second = V/t

( )
= 80cm3/s x

= 80 x 10-6m3/s

Power = work done per second = PV

= 1.7 x 104 x 80 x 10-6

= 1.36watts

51
7.0 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple Harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is

directly proportional to displacement from equilibrium.

Mathematically, the restoring force Fx is given by

Fx = - kx (7.1)

where the force constant k is always positive and has units of Nm-1, and x is the displacement

from the equilibrium position (in metre).

The acceleration ax = d2x/d2t = Fx/m of a body in SHM is given by

(7.2)

The minus (-) sign means the acceleration and displacement always have opposite signs

The acceleration ax can also be expressed as

2
ax = - x (7.3)

52
Period and frequency of a SHM

The period, of a SHM is defined as the time to make one complete oscillation. It is given by

(7.4)

It is measured in second(s)

The frequency, f, of a SHM is defined as the number of complete oscillation per second. It is

given by

(7.5)

It is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Combining Eq (7.2) and Eq (7.3), get

(7.6)

and since ω = 2πf, Eq (7.5) becomes

√ (7.7)

and since T = 1/f, where T is the period then,

√ (7.8)

53
Energy in simple harmonic motion

Recall that the kinetic energy of a body is k = 1/2mv2 and the potential energy of the spring is U =
1
/2kx2, so the total mechanical energy, E is given by

E = 1 /2 m = constant (7.9)

Putting x = A, the energy is entirely potential, and

E= = 1/2kA2 = constant (7.10)

From Eq (7.10) solving for the velocity vx of the body at a given displacement x:

√ (√ ) (7.11)

This ± sign means that at a given values of x the body can be moving in either direction.

Eq (7.11) also shows that the maximum speed vx occurs at x = 0. Using Eq (7.6), √ ⁄ ,

we find that

√ (7.12)

Example

A spring is mounted horizontally, with its left end held stationary. If k = 200N/m, m = 0.50kg,

and the oscillating mass is release from rest at x = 0.020m. (a) Find the maximum and minimum

velocities attained by the oscillating body (b) compute the maximum acceleration (c) determine

the velocity and acceleration when the body has move halfway to the centre from its original

position (d) find the total energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy at this position.

54
Solution

(a) The velocity vx at any displacement x is given by

√ (√ )

The maximum velocity occurs when the body is moving to the right through the

equilibrium position, x = 0

√ ⁄

=√

The minimum (i.e. most negative) velocity occur when the body is moving to the left

through x = 0, i.e.

vmin = - 0.4m/s

(b) The maximum (most positive) acceleration occurs at the most negative value of x, x = -A

therefore

= 8.0m/s2

The minimum (most negative) accelerative is – 8.0m/s2, occurring at x = +A = + 0.020m

55
 (c) At a point halfway to the centre from the initial position, x = A/2 = 0.010m

√ (√ )

√ √ 1
5

= - 0.35m/s

The negative square root is used because the body is moving from x = A toward x = 0

Also,

1
5

= - 4.0m/s2

(d) The total energy has the same value at all points during the motion

E = 1/2kA2 = ½(200N/m)(0.020m)2

= 0.040J

The potential energy

U = 1/2kx2 = ½(200N/m)(0.010m/s)2

= 0.010J

The kinetic energy is

K = 1 /2 m = 1/2(0.50kg)( - 0.35m/s)2

= 0.030J

56
Simple pendulum

A simple pendulum is one which can be considered to be a point mass suspended from a string or

rod of negligible mass. It is a resonant system with a single resonant frequency.

If the forces on the mass are in terms of tangential and radial components, then the restoring

force Fθ is given by

Fθ = - mgθ = - mg or

(7.14)

But the force constant k = and from E.q (7.6)

√ √ √ (7.15)

57
The corresponding frequency and period relationships are:

√ ⁄ (7.16)

√⁄ (7.17)

Exercise

(1) A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2s. When the pendulum is shortened by 1m, the

period is 3.7s. From these measurements, calculate the acceleration of free –fall g and the

original length of the pendulum. Ans: 10.0m/s2; 4.5m

(2) The bob of a simple pendulum moves simple harmonically with amplitude 8.0cm and

period 2.00s. Its mass is 0.50kg. The motion of the bob is undamped. Calculate the

maximum values for (a) the speed of the bob (b) the kinetic energy of the bob.

(a) 0.25ms-1 (b) 15.8mJ

58
8.0 MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

Torque and Angular acceleration

The angular acceleration, α is defined mathematically as the time derivative of the angular

velocity vector, ⃗ It is give by

or

z = oz + αzt (8.1)

where oz is the angular velocity at time, t = 0, and z is angular velocity at time t = 0, and z is

the angular velocity at time t = t. The SI unit of angular acceleration, αz is radians per second

per second, rad.s-2.

The average angular accelerations αav-z is given by

av-z = (8.2)

Recall from Eq (3.1), putting θ = θ – θo, then the average angular velocity is

= (8.3)

Equating Eqs (8.2) and (8.3) and multiply the result by t, we get

θ – θo = (ωoz + ωz)t (8.4)

Substituting eq(8.1) into Eq(8.4), we get

θ – θo = [ωoz + (ωoz + αzt)]t or

θ = θo + ωozt + αzt2 (8.5)

59
Also, combining Eq (8.1) and Eq (8.5), we get

(8.6)

Energy in Rotational Motion

Recall that two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide are said to form a

couple. The turning – effect or moment of the two forces is called a Torque, τ, and is given by

and the unit of τ is Newton – metre (Nm). In an analogous way, applying torque, τ to

rotational wheel, gives it an angular acceleration given by

τ = Iαz (8.7)

where I is the moment of inertia of the wheel about its axis of rotation.

Moment of Inertia

The moment inertia, I of a body about an axis of rotation is defined as a measure of that body‟s

resistance to angular acceleration about that axis

Fig 8.1: Moment of inertia

60
The force F on m1 is given by

F = m1ax = m1 αz (8.8)

torque about O = F x r1 = m1 α + m1 αz (8.9)

Adding together all the torques on the masses which make up the object X, then

Total torque, τ = m1 α – m2 α + …

=∑ = Iα (8.10)

where ∑ . The S.I unit of I is kgm2.

The angular momentum of a rigid body which is the moment of the momentum about a given

axis is related to the moment of inertia of the body by

Total angular momentum of whole body ∑ ∑ =I (8.11)

Also, angular momentum charge = τ x t

or τ x t = (8.12)

Conservation of Angular Momentum

The conservation of angular momentum states that the angular momentum about an axis of a

given rotating of body or system of bodies is constant, if no external torque acts about that axis.

61
From figure 8.1, the rotational kinetic energy of the object x about O is given by:

= sum of kinetic energy of all its individual masses

= +...

= + ...

(8.13)

The moment of inertia, I of a uniform rod of mass, m and length, l is given by

(8.14)

Also, the moment of inertia, I of a sphere of radius, r and mass, m is given by

(8.15)

Example

An electric motor exerts a constant torque of 10Nm on a grindstone mounted on its shaft. The

moment of inertia of grindstone is 2kgm2. If the system starts from rest. Find the total work done

by the motor in 10seconds and the kinetic energy at the end of this time. Evaluate the average

power delivered by the motor.

62
Solution

Given: τ = 10Nm, I = 2kgm2, t = 10s

Recall that τ = Iα or

This implies that 5

Angular velocity after 10s, ω = αt = 5 x 10 = 50rad/s.

The total angle through which the system m turns in 10s is

θ = 1/2αt2 = 1/2 x 5 x (10)2 = 250rad

total work done by the torque, is

= τθ = 10 x 250 = 2500J

Also, the kinetic energy after 10s is given by

K.E = 1/2Iω2

= 1/2 x 2 x (50)2

= 2500J

Hence, the total work done by the torque is equal to the kinetic energy expended.

Thus, the average power is given by

average power =

= = 250Js-1 = 250watts

63
Example

A heavy flywheel of moment of inertia 0.3kgm2 is mounted on a horizontal axle of radius 0.01m

and negligible mass compared with the flywheel. Neglecting friction, find: (i) the angular

acceleration if a force of 40N is applied tangentially to the axle (ii) the angular velocity of the

flywheel after 10 seconds from rest.

Solution

(i) Recall that τ = Iα = F.r

or

= 1.3rad/s2

(ii) After 10seconds, ω = αt

= 1.3 x 10

= 13rad/s.

Exercise

(1) A constant torque of 500Nm turns a wheel which has a moment of inertia 20kgm2 about

its centre. Find the angular velocity gained in 2s and the kinetic energy gained.

Ans: 50rad/s; 25000J

(2) A flywheel of moment of inertia 0.32kgm2 is rotated steadily at 120rads-1 by a 50W

electric motor. (i) Find the kinetic energy and angular momentum of the flywheel.

(ii) Calculate the value of the frictional couple opposing the rotation (iii) Find the time

taken for the wheel to come to rest after the motor has been switched off.

Ans: (i) 2304J, 38.4kgm2s-1 (ii) 0.42Nm (iii) 92.2s

64
9.0 ELASTICITY

A material is said to be elastic if after being extended by a load, it returns to its original position

when the load is removed. Elasticity therefore is the physical property possessed by a material to

return to its original position when an extended load is removed.

Hooke’s Law

Hooke‟s law states that provided the elastic limit (or proportional limit) is not exceeded, the

extension, e of an elastic material is directly proportional to the applied force or load, F

i.e. F e or

F = ke (9.1)

where F is the applied force or load measured in Newton (N)

e is the extension measured in metre (m), and

k is the constant of proportionality called elastic constant or force constant or stiffness of

the material. It is measured in Newton per metre (N/m).

Since e = ℓ - ℓo, Eq (9.1) can be written as

F = k(ℓ - ℓo) (9.2)

Where ℓo is the original or initial length, and ℓ is the extend length

65
Tensile stress and Tensile strain, young modulus

When a force or tension F is applied to the end of a wire of cross – sectional area A along its

length, a graph of the form shown in figure 9.1 is obtained:

Fig. 9.1: Stress against strain

Tensile stress is defined as force per unit area and is given by:

Tensile stress = ⁄ (9.3)

It is measured in Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa)

Tensile strain is defined as extension per unit length. It is given by

Tensile stress = (9.4)

It has no unit

66
Young’s Modulus E

This is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is given by:

Young Modulus = (9.5)

It is measure in Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa).

From Eq (9.5) since tensile stress = ⁄ and tensile strain = , then

⁄
or
⁄

(9.6)

Recall that linear expansivity of a material is given by, , so substituting for ⁄ in Eq (9.6),

we get

(9.7)

Where α is linear expansivity and θ is the temperature.

Energy stored in a stretched wire

Suppose that a wire has an original length ℓ and is stretched by a length e when a force F is

applied at one end. Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, the work done is given by

Work done = average force x extension

or

Work done, (9.8)

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This energy is stored in form of potential energy.

From Eq. (9.1), and putting F in Eq (9.8) get

E = 1/2ke2 (9.9)

Also, from (9.6), putting F in (9.8), we have

1⁄ (9.10)

Now, the volume of a wire = Aℓ, where A is the cross – sectional area and ℓ is the length here.

Therefore, Energy per unit volume =

= 1/2stress x strain (9.11)

Example

A steel rod 2.0m long has a cross-sectional area of 0.30cm2. the rod is now hung by one end from

a support structure, and a 550-kg milling machine is hung from the rod‟s lower end. Determine

the tensile stress, the tensile stress, the tensile strain, and the elongation (extension) of the rod.

(Young Modulus of steel = 20 x 1010Pa).

Solution

Tensile stress =

= 1.8 x 108Pa

Tensile strain =

= 9.0 x 10-4
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Elongation = ∆ℓ = strain x ℓo

= (9.0 x 10-4) x 2.0m

= 0.0018m = 1.8mm

Example

A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area of 2mm2 and an initial length of 0.20m, and

is stretched to 0.24m to fire a small object of mass 10g. Calculate the initial velocity of the object

when it just leaves the catapult. Assume the Young modulus for rubber is 6 x 10 8Pa and that

elastic limit is not exceeded.

Solution

A = 2mm2 = 2 x (10-3)2m2 = 2 x 10-6m2, ℓ = 0.20m

e = 0.24 – 0.20 = 0.04m, m = 10g = 10-2kg, v = ?

Force on the stretched rubber, F =

= 240N

But the kinetic energy of the object = energy stored in the rubber

1
/2mv2 = 1/2Fe

√ 1
1

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Exercise

A rod 1.05m long whose weight is negligible (as shown in the figure 2 below) is supported at its

ends by wires A and B of equal length. At what point along the bar should a weight W be hung

in order to produce (a) equal stresses in A and B. (b) equal strains in A and B. take the cross –

sectional area and Young‟s modulus of A and B to be 1.0mm2, 2.07 x 1011Nm-2 and 2.0mm2,

1.38 x 1010Nm-2 respectively.

A B

TA TB

1.05m
Fig. 2

Intermolecular Forces

The forces which exist between molecules can be used to describe many of the bulk properties of

solids, liquid and gases. These intermolecular forces arise from two main causes: the potential

energy of the molecules and the thermal energy of the molecules.

70
 Fig. 3: Intermolecular potential energy and force

The figure 3 shows the variation of the mutual potential energy V between two molecules at a

distance r apart. The potential energy can be written as

V(x) = (9.12)

Where p and q are powers of r, and a, and b are constants.

The force F(x) between the molecules is generally given by

(9.13)

At F = 0, r = ro which is the equilibrium position. Less than ro, F is +ve (repulsive force = +kr)

and greater than ro, F is – ve (attractive force = - kr).

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10.0 FLUID FLOW

An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible (that is, its density cannot change) and has no

internal friction (i.e. viscosity).

Fig 10.1

The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called a flow line. The flow is said to be

steady flow if the overall flow pattern does not change with time. The streamlines of the flow

represent the directions of the velocities of the particles of fluid and the flow is uniform or

laminar.

The Continuity Equation

Consider a portion of a flow tube between two stationary cross – sections with areas A1 and A2 in

the figure above. The fluid speeds at these sections are v1 and v2 respectively.

During a small time interval dt, the fluid at A1 moves a distant v1 dt; so a cylinder of fluid with

height V1dt and volume dv1 = A1V1dt flows into the tube „across A1. During the same interval, a

cylinder of volume dv2 = A2v2dt flows out of the tube across A2.

For an incompressible fluid, the density, ρ is the same at all points. In a steady flow, the total

mass in the tube is constant, so dm1 = dm2 and

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ρA1v1dt = ρA2v2dt or

A1v1 = A2v2 (10.1)

This is the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid.

The product Av is the volume flow rate ⁄ , the rate at which the volume crosses a section of

the tube:

(10.2)

But for a compressible fluid, Eq(10.1) becomes

ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2 v2 (10.3)

Example

As part of a lubricating system for heavy machinery, oil of density 850kg/m3 is pumped through

a cylindrical pipe of diameter 8.0cm at a rate of 9.5 litres per second. (a) What is the speed of the

oil? What is the mass flow rate? (b) If the pipe diameter is reduced to 4.0cm, what are the new

values of the speed and volume flow rate? Assume that the oil is incompressible.

Solution

⁄
(a) or

1
1
1

The mass flow rate is = ρdv/dt

= (850kg/m3)(9.5 x 10-3m3/s) = 8.1kg/s

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 (b) A1v1 = A2v2

or 1

= 7.6m/s

Bernoulli’s principle

Bernoulli‟s principle states that for a streamline (or lamina) motion of an incompressible non-

viscous fluid, the sum of the pressure at any point plus the kinetic energy per unit volume plus

the potential energy per unit volume there is always constant. That is:

p + 1/2ρv2 + ρgh = constant (10.4)

where p = pressure at any point, v = velocity of fluid at that point, ρ = density of fluid, h = height

of the point.

Bernoulli‟s principle shows that at points in a moving fluid where the potential energy change

ρgh is very small, or zero as in flow through a horizontal pipe, the pressure is low where the

velocity is high. Conversely, the pressure is high where the velocity is low.

Proof of Bernoulli’s equation

Consider a portion of a flow tube between two stationary sections with areas A1 and A2 in figure

10.1.

The work done, W by pressure, p in moving a fluid through a distance, s is

W=PxAxs=PxV (i)

assuming the area A is constant at a particular place for a short time flow

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The total work done on the fluid per unit volume is

= P1 – P2 (ii)

The kinetic energy gained per unit volume

= 1 /2 ρ (iii)

where ρ is density of the fluid and v1 and v2 are the initial and final velocities.

The potential energy gained per unit volume

= ρg(h2 – h1) (iv)

where h1 and h2 are height at the beginning of the pipe and at a fixed end.

From conservation of energy:

P1 – P2 = 1/2ρ + ρg(h2 – h1)

P1 + 1/2ρ = P2 + 1/2ρ

Or P + 1/2ρv2 + ρgh = constant

Application of Bernoulli’s Principle

(1) Filter pump

(2) Aerofoil lift

(3) Venture metre

(4) A suction effect on a person in a platform when a brain crosses fast.

(5) Burnser burner, etc.

75
Example

Water flows steadily along a horizontal pipe at a volume rate of 10 x 10-3m3s-1. If the area of

cross-section of the pipe is 50cm2. (a) Calculate the flow velocity of the water (b) find the total

pressure in the pipe if the static pressure in the horizontal pipe is 3.0 x 104Pa.

Solution

(a) Velocity of water =

= 2.0m/s

(b) Total pressure = static pressure + 1/2ρv2

= 3.0 x 104 + 1/2 x 1000 x 22

= 3.2 x 104N/m2

Exercise

(1) Water flows along a horizontal pipe of cross sectional area 48cm2 which has a

constriction of cross –sectional area 12cm2 at one place. If the speed of the water at the

constriction is 4ms-1, calculate the speed in the wider section.

The pressure in the wider section is 1.0 x 105Pa. Calculate the pressure at the constriction

(Density of water = 1000kg/m3).

Ans: 1m/s, 9.25 x 104Pa

76
 (2) The static pressure in a horizontal pipeline is 4.3 x 104Pa; the total pressure is 4.7 x

104Pa, and the area of cross-section is 20cm2. The fluid may be considered to be

incompressible and non-viscous and has a density of 103kg/m3. Calculate (i) the flow

velocity in the pipeline (ii) the volume flow rate in the pipeline.

Ans: (i) 2.8m/s (ii) 5.7 x 10-3m3/s-1

VISCOSITY

This is the term used to describe the internal friction in a fluid. Viscosity is the property of a fluid

which tends to prevent or oppose the motion of one layer over another.

The coefficient of viscosity, η is defined as force acting normally in liquid per unit area per unit

velocity gradient. That is:

η= (10.5)
( )

Factors such as nature of liquid, temperature, impurity, concentration, pressure, relative velocity,

area of the surface in contact affects the viscosity of a given fluid.

For a sphere falling in a viscous fluid, the terminal speed Vt is given by

( )
(10.6)

where r is the radius of the sphere, η is the coefficient of viscosity, ρ and ρ1 are the densities of

the sphere and fluid respectively.

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Proof
Upthrust, u (Fbuoyancy)
FFriction

ρ,
r

W = mg
When a sphere is moving in a viscous fluid, the terminal velocity, Vt is reached when the total

force is zero, including the weight of the sphere, the viscous retarding force and the buoyant

force.

Let ρ and ρ1 be the densities of the sphere and fluid respectively.

The weight of the sphere = 4/3 r3ρg

Buoyant force = 4/3 r3ρ1g

Frictional force (stroke‟s law) = 6 ηrVt

At terminal speed, Vt:

∑Fy = Fbouyant + Ffriction + ( - W) = 0

4
/3 r3ρ1g + 6 ηrVt - 4/3 r3ρg = 0

 Vt =

Example

The motion of a sphere of radius r and speed V through air is opposed by a resistive force KrV,

where k is 3.2 x 10-4Nm-2s. The terminal speed of an oil drop in Millikan oil experiment was

3.57 x 10-4ms-1. When there was no electric field. The same oil drop was held stationary by an
78
electric field intensity 3.2 x 105Vm-1, oil of density 920kgm-3 was used. Calculate (a) the radius

of the drop (b) the weight of the drop (c) the charge on the drop. Neglecting the density of air

compared with that of oil.

Solution

(a) At terminal speed, when no electric filed is applied, the resistive force must be equal to

the weight of the oil drop.

i.e. KrV = mg = 4/3 r3ρg for spherical drop

or r = 1.8 x 10-6m

(b) Weight of oil drop = mg = 4/3 r3ρg

= 2.25 x 10-13N

(c) When an electric field is present and drop in stationary.

qE = weight of the drop

where q is the electric charge or drop, E is the electric field intensity

79
READING LISTS
Prescribed textbooks:
University Physics
By Young & Freedman
Pearson International Edition
ISBN-13:978-0-321-50130-1
Advanced Level Physics
By Nelkon & Parker
Heinemann
ISBN: 81-239-0400-2

Essential Principles of Physics

By Emeka E. Ike
Beacon
ISBN 978-32985-5-0

80