OPEN CHANNEL FLOW (OCF)

Prepared by

Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali

Asst Prof
Dep of Civil Eng
13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa
KSRMCE 1
• Objectives:

• The primary objective of open channel flow studies is to

understand and manage the flow of liquids with a free surface,
typically driven by gravity, in channels like rivers, canals, or
drainage systems.

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• Syllabus:

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• Review of Fluid Mechanics:
• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics:
• Fluid Mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest
(fluid statics) and in motion (fluid dynamics). It plays a vital role in Civil, Mechanical, Chemical, and Aerospace
Engineering.

• Fluid — A substance that deforms continuously under the application of shear stress, however small.
• Types of Fluids:
• Ideal Fluid: Incompressible and has no viscosity.
• Real Fluid: Possesses viscosity.
• Newtonian Fluid: Viscosity remains constant (e.g., water, air).
• Non-Newtonian Fluid: Viscosity changes with applied stress (e.g., toothpaste).
• Compressible Fluid: Density varies with pressure (e.g., gases).
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• Incompressible Fluid: Density remains constant (e.g., liquids).
• Properties of Fluids
Property Definition Units

Density (ρ) Mass per unit volume kg/m³

Specific Weight (γ) Weight per unit volume N/m³

Specific Gravity Ratio of fluid density to water density —

Viscosity (μ) Resistance to flow Pa·s

Kinematic Viscosity (ν) Viscosity divided by density m²/s

Surface Tension (σ) Cohesive force at the surface N/m

Compressibility (β) Change in volume under pressure Pa⁻¹

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• Fluid Static: The study of fluid at rest

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• Fluid Kinematics: Study of motion of fluids without considering the forces.

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• Fluid Dynamics: Study of forces causing fluid motion.

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• Dimensional Analysis & Similitude:

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• Viscous Flow:

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• Conservation Equations:
• Introduction:
• The hydrologic process involves the distribution of water through the hydrologic
cycle with respect to space and time.
o Evaporation
o Precipitation
o Infiltration
o Runoff

• The movement of water in a catchment is influenced by the physical properties of the

catchment.

• Many physical laws are involved in these hydrological processes.

• There
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is a need to develop models for studying these processes.
Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 11
• Most of the hydrologic process cab be modelled by using the three basic
laws of physics.
• Continuity Equation (or) Conservation of mass
• Momentum Equation (or) Conservation of momentum
• Energy Equation (or) Conservation of Energy

• To derive the above equation using hydrologic process by using

Reynolds Transport Theorem (or) Control Volume Theorem

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• Conservation Equations:
(a). Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass):

• Conservation of mass states that mass cannot be created or destroyed.

• For a section of pipeline (control volume), the continuity equation expresses this as:
Rate of mass entering−Rate of mass leaving=Rate of mass accumulation

• This shows that the product of cross-sectional area and velocity remains constant,
indicating
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no loss or gain of massDr.within the pipeline section.
K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 13
• Conservation Equations in Pipe Flow:
(b). Momentum Equation (Conservation of Momentum):

• The momentum equation follows from Newton's Second Law applied to a control
volume, linking the force exerted by the fluid to the change in momentum.

• In pipelines, it's crucial for analyzing pressure drops, reaction forces at pipe
supports, and bends.

• The general form (for a control volume) is

• This helps in designing pipeline supports and evaluating forces at elbows or

junctions.
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• Conservation Equations in Pipe Flow:
(c). Energy Conservation (Conservation of Energy):

• The energy equation (Bernoulli’s equation for frictionless flow) follows from the First
Law of Thermodynamics applied to fluids:

• For actual pipeline design, losses due to friction, changes in elevation, and fittings
must be considered.

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 • Reynolds Transport Theorem:
• The Reynolds Transport Theorem is a powerful tool used in fluid mechanics to
relate the time rate of change of an extensive property within a system to the
corresponding changes within a control volume and across its boundaries. It
essentially allows you to switch between a system-based analysis (where you track
a fixed mass) and a control volume analysis (where you analyze a fixed region in
space).

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• Reynolds Transport Theorem:

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• Steady Flow Analysis of Pipe Network Systems:
• Pipeline and Pipe Network:
• The hydraulics of pipelines and pipe networks presented herein is limited to turbulent
flow of water in closed conduits (pipes) flowing full.

• Closed conduits flowing partially full, such as storm sewers, are analyzed as open
channel flow.

• Pipes are connected in various configurations (called networks) to transport water

from the supply to the user (customer).

• When the pipes are connected in a series, the system is called a pipeline. When pipes
are associated with one or more closed loops, the system is referred to as a network.

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• A pipe system can include many types of components: pipes of various lengths and
diameters, valves to control flow rate and isolate parts of the system for repair,
pumps and turbines to convert between hydraulic energy and mechanical, thermal,
and electrical energy.

• Flow in a pipe can either be steady or unsteady. Unsteady flow implies that the
velocity is a function of time and will change on the scale of seconds.

• Steady flow implies that the velocity is constant, although it is often assumed to
change slowly over time (sequence of steady states).

• Steady flow equations can be used to analyze a water distribution system where the
demands on the system change hourly, pumps turn on and off, and storage tanks fill
and drain as time proceeds.

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Equations for Steady Flow:
• The hydraulics of steady flow in pipe systems is described by the continuity equation
and the energy equation.
• Continuity Equation:
• Water is considered incompressible in steady flow in pipelines and pipe networks,
and the conservation of mass reduces to the volumetric flow rate, Q.
Q=AV
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe, and V is the mean section velocity.
• Continuity Equation between two cross-sections:
• The continuity equation between two cross-sections of a pipe, as shown

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• Continuity at Junction (Node):
• Junctions (nodes) are where two or more pipes join together. A three-pipe
junction node with constant external demand is shown in the Figure. The
continuity equation for the junction node is.

• In design analysis, all demands on the system

are located at junctions (nodes), and the flow
connecting junctions is assumed to be
uniform. If a substantial demand is located
between nodes, then an additional node is
established at the demand location.

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• Energy Equation:
• The design of a pressurized conduit involves selecting diameter and materials to
satisfy hydraulic requirements at the lowest life-cycle cost. Most buyers of
engineering services are first-cost buyers, so the lowest life-cycle cost usually
means the lowest initial capital cost.
• The following Equation is the one-dimensional steady flow form of the energy
equation typically applied for pressurized conduit hydraulics.

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• Steady Flow Analysis of Pipe Network Systems:
• Steady flow analysis of pipe networks is a critical process in civil and hydraulic engineering,
used to evaluate the behavior of fluid (typically water) in interconnected pipeline systems
where the flow parameters (such as discharge and pressure) remain constant over time.

• This analysis works based on the following steps

1. Fundamental Concept
2. Head Loss in Pipes
3. Analytical and Numerical Methods
4. Applications in the Real World
5. Advantages of Study Flow Analysis

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1. Fundamental Concepts
The analysis of a pipe network is based on two key principles:

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2. Head Loss in Pipes
• Frictional head loss in pipelines is a crucial factor and is generally calculated using:

• Darcy-Weisbach Equation:

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3. Analytical and Numerical Methods:
• Several methods are used to solve flow distribution in pipe networks:

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4. Applications in the Real World:
• Steady flow analysis of pipe networks is essential in

5. Advantages of Study Flow Analysis:

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• Unsteady Steady Flows:
• In fluid mechanics, unsteady flow refers to the condition where the flow
parameters (velocity, pressure, or cross-sectional area) change with time at a given
location. One important and widely encountered unsteady flow phenomenon in
closed conduit systems is Water Hammer.

• Water hammer is a hydraulic phenomenon that occurs in pipelines due to a

sudden change in the flow velocity of a fluid, typically caused by rapid valve
closure, pump failure, or sudden opening. This sudden deceleration or
acceleration generates high-pressure waves that travel along the pipeline,
resulting in transient flow or unsteady flow conditions. These pressure
waves can cause significant damage to the pipeline infrastructure, fittings,
and equipment if not properly analyzed and mitigated.
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• Causes of Water Hammer:
• Sudden valve closure or opening
• Sudden pump start or stop
• Power failure to pumping systems
• Column separation and vapor cavity formation
• Assumptions for Water Hammer Analysis:
1. The fluid is incompressible or slightly compressible.
2. The pipe wall is elastic (deformable).
3. Flow is one-dimensional.
4. Frictional losses may be included or neglected based on the
situation.
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• Basic Equations of Water Hammer:
• The fundamental equations governing the water hammer phenomenon are
derived from the principles of continuity and momentum applied to a
control volume in a pipeline. These lead to two partial differential equations
that describe the variations in pressure and velocity with respect to time and
space.

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1. Equation of Continuity (Mass Conservation):

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2. Equation of Momentum (Force Balance):

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Joukowsky Equation (For Sudden Closure):

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Wave Speed (a):

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• Method of Characteristics (MoC):
• The Method of Characteristics (MoC) is a powerful mathematical tool widely used to
analyze and solve transient (unsteady) flow problems in pipelines, particularly water
hammer events. The technique transforms the governing partial differential equations
(PDEs) of fluid flow into ordinary differential equations (ODEs), making them solvable
through stepwise calculations. It is the preferred method for practical water hammer
analysis due to its reliability and flexibility, accommodating various boundary and initial
conditions.

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• Principles of Method of Characteristics (MoC):
• Water Hammer Equations:
• During transients, fluid flow in a pipe is governed by two coupled PDEs (continuity and
momentum equations) involving pressure and velocity as functions of both space and
time.

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• Method of Characteristics Transformation :
• MoC eliminates direct spatial and temporal derivatives by combining the two PDEs
along specific lines (characteristics) in the x−t plane. Along these lines, the equations
are reduced to simpler ODEs.

Q=V

(Or)

(Or)

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• Application in Pipeline Analysis:
• The pipeline is divided into a grid of time steps (Δt) and space steps (Δx=a Δt).
• Using initial and boundary conditions (such as valve closure, pump trip, or reservoir
head), values of Q and H are computed step-by-step at each grid point by applying
the characteristic equations.
• The method allows the determination of pressure head and flow rate variations
throughout the system during transients.

• Advantages:

• Handles complex boundary conditions (valve operations, pump controls).

• Provides realistic transient pressure predictions, preventing pipeline failure.
• Widely used in the design of surge tanks, air chambers, and relief valves.
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• Network Analysis:
• The Network analysis in pipeline hydraulics involves the systematic determination of flow
distribution and pressure heads within interconnected pipe systems. These networks are
common in water supply, irrigation, fire-fighting systems, and industrial piping layouts.
The main objective is to ensure that the designed network delivers the required flow to
each demand point while maintaining adequate pressure and minimizing energy losses.

• A pipe network generally consists of nodes (junctions), links (pipes), pumps, valves, and
other hydraulic components. The complexity arises due to the interconnection of multiple
loops and branches, which makes direct analytical solutions difficult. The analysis is
typically based on two fundamental principles:

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1. Continuity Equation (Mass Conservation):
At any junction, the sum of incoming flows equals the sum of outgoing flows.

2. Energy Equation (Head Loss Balance):

For any closed loop in the network, the algebraic sum of head losses (due to
friction and fittings) is zero, considering the direction of assumed flow. The head
loss in a pipe can be calculated using Darcy–Weisbach or Hazen–Williams
equations.

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Common Methods for Network Analysis:
1. Hardy Cross Method: An iterative technique where corrections to assumed flows are
applied until the head loss balance in each loop is satisfied.
2. Newton–Raphson Method: Uses matrix-based computation for faster convergence,
often applied in computer-based network analysis.
3. Linear Theory Methods: Suitable for networks with small variations in head loss.

Applications in Hydraulics:
• Designing water distribution systems.
• Optimizing pipeline diameters for minimum energy loss.
• Detecting and balancing unequal flows in loops.
• Assessing operational changes when valves or pumps are adjusted.

Advantages:
• Ensures a uniform and reliable water supply.
• Prevents overloading of specific pipelines.
• Improves
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Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 43
 UNIT-II: Steady Varied Flows in Open Channels
Introduction:
• The existence of a free surface characterizes flow in an open channel. The pressure on the
free surface is constant and atmospheric at every point on the surface.
EX: Flow in irrigation channels, streams and rivers, navigation channels, drainage
channels, sewers under ordinary conditions.
• Flow in open channels is largely turbulent with negligible surface tension.
• All open channels have a bottom slope, and hence, gravity force is the main force causing
the flow.
• The component of the weight of the liquid along the slope acts as the driving force. The
boundary resistance at the perimeter acts as the resisting force.
• As the gravity force is the driving force, the Froude number is the main non-dimensional
number governing the flow phenomenon in an open channel.
• The water surface represents the hydraulic gradient line.
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Difference between Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow:
S.No. Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow
1 Flow is driven by pressure difference. Flow is driven by gravity (slope of channel).
2 No free surface; pipe is usually completely full. Always has a free surface exposed to atmosphere.
Pressure can be above or below atmospheric
3 Pressure at free surface is always atmospheric.
pressure.
Flow measured using Venturimeter, Orifice meter,
4 Flow measured using weirs, flumes, notches.
Flow nozzle.
5 The cross-section is filled with fluid. Cross-section is partially filled with fluid.
6 Examples: Water supply pipes, oil pipelines. Examples: Rivers, canals, sewers.
Energy equation: Bernoulli’s equation with Energy equation includes depth of flow as potential
7
pressure head, velocity head, elevation head. energy.
Friction losses are calculated using Darcy, the Friction losses calculated using Manning’s or
8
Weisbach, or Hazen–Williams formula. Chezy’s equation.
9 Flow regulation by valves, pumps. Flow regulation by sluice gates, weirs, barrages.
Hydraulic gradient line lies inside the pipe and Hydraulic gradient is the free water surface, which
10
may not match slope.
13-09-2025 matches
Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa channel slope. 45
Basic Concepts of Uniform Flow in Open Channels:
• Open channel flow refers to the movement of liquid with a free surface
exposed to atmospheric pressure. Examples include rivers, canals, drainage
ditches, and partially-filled pipes.
• Flow in open channels is primarily influenced by gravity along the channel
slope and resisted by channel friction.
• Uniform flow in an open channel occurs when the depth, velocity, and
cross-sectional area of water remain constant at every section along the
channel’s length.
• In this condition, gravitational forces driving the water and frictional
forces resisting it are in perfect balance, leading to a steady and consistent
flow regime.
• A practical example is water flowing steadily in a straight, prismatic
irrigation canal or drainage channel.
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Key Features of Uniform Flow:
• The channel must have a constant slope, shape, and roughness.
• Depth of flow (“normal depth”), velocity, and discharge do not change spatially
(dimensionally or geometrically).
• The water surface and channel bed are parallel.
• Achievable mainly in prismatic (straight, geometrically similar) channels.
Flow Parameters in Uniform Flow:
• Depth of flow (y): Vertical distance from channel bed to water surface.
• Wetted perimeter (P): The length of the channel boundary in contact with the
fluid.
• Wetted area (A): Cross-sectional area of the flow.
• Hydraulic radius (R): R=A/P
• Slope (S): Gradient of the channel bottom.
• Velocity (V) and Discharge (Q): Both are constant along a uniform flow reach.
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Equations Governing Uniform Flow:
Empirical Formulas:
a. Chezy’s Formula:

Where, V=average velocity,

C = Chezy coefficient (depends on channel roughness),
R = hydraulic radius,
S = energy slope (equals channel bed slope for uniform flow).

b. Manning’s Equation (Most Commonly Used):

Where, n=Manning’s coefficient (reflects channel roughness).

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Discharge is then calculated as:

• For a given channel section and discharge, the normal depth is determined
by rearranging Manning's equation and solving for yy, usually by iteration.

Establishment of Uniform Flow:

• Uniform flow is established only after water has flowed over a long
enough prismatic channel of constant cross-section and slope.
• In practice, exact uniform flow is rare; however, when variations in depth
and velocity are negligible along a stretch, it is treated as uniform for
analysis and design.

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Applications of Uniform Flow:
1. Irrigation Canals: Design ensures a uniform delivery of water to crops.
2. Stormwater Drainage: Channels are designed for uniform flow to minimize
the risk of flooding.
3. Sewers and Wastewater Channels: Uniform flow design prevents blockages
and ensures self-cleansing velocity.
4. Water Treatment: Sedimentation tanks use uniform flow to settle
suspended particles.
5. Check Floods: Uniform channel design helps control floodwaters.

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Classification of Flows in Open Channels:
• Flow in open channels can be classified based on different criteria as follows:
1. Based on State of Flow:
I. Steady Flow: Flow parameters (depth, velocity, discharge) do not change with
time.
II. Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters change with time.

2. Based on Uniformity:
I. Uniform Flow: Depth, velocity, and cross-section remain constant along
the channel length (e.g., normal flow in a prismatic channel).
II. Non-Uniform Flow: Flow properties vary along the length.
a) Gradually Varied Flow (GVF): Depth changes gradually (e.g., backwater curve).
b) Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF): Depth changes abruptly (e.g., hydraulic jump).

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3. Based on Flow Depth (Relative to Critical Depth):
I. Subcritical Flow (Tranquil Flow): Depth > critical depth, Froude number (Fr) < 1, flow
is slow and controlled by downstream conditions.
II. Critical Flow: Depth = critical depth, Fr = 1, minimum specific energy.
III. Supercritical Flow (Rapid Flow): Depth < critical depth, Fr > 1, flow is fast and
controlled by upstream conditions.

4. Based on Compressibility
I. Incompressible Flow: Water is assumed incompressible (common in open channel
hydraulics).
II. Compressible Flow: Rare, only considered in special cases (like high-velocity gas
flows).
Examples:
• Water flowing steadily at constant depth in a canal → Steady Uniform Flow.
• River flood conditions with varying depth → Unsteady Non-Uniform Flow.
• Flow over a spillway crest → Supercritical Flow.
• 13-09-2025
Hydraulic jump downstream of aDr. sluice gate → Rapidly Varied Flow.
K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 52
Specific Energy and Specific Force:
• Steady varied flow in open channels occurs when flow properties such as depth and
velocity change along the channel but remain constant at a given section with time. Two
essential analytical tools for such flows are the specific energy and specific force concepts,
which help understand critical flow conditions, transitions, and phenomena like hydraulic
jumps, for efficient hydraulic design and analysis.
1. Specific Energy:
• Specific energy (E) is the total energy per unit weight of water measured with respect to
the channel bed at a given section.

Where,

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Specific energy curve:
• Plots E versus y for a given discharge.
• At a given energy, there can be two possible depths: subcritical (greater depth,
lower velocity) and supercritical (lower depth, higher velocity) except at the critical
depth.

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2. Specific Force:
• Specific force (F) expresses the sum of the hydrostatic force and momentum flux per unit
weight at a channel section relative to the bed.

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or 63
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Spatially Varied Flows (SVF):
• In open channel hydraulics, Spatially Varied Flow (SVF) refers to a type of non-uniform steady flow
in which the discharge changes along the channel length. Unlike Gradually Varied Flow (GVF),
where discharge is constant and only the depth varies, in SVF, the depth as well as the discharge
vary due to lateral inflow (addition of water) or lateral outflow (removal of water).
• This occurs commonly in channels that have side inflows (such as rainfall-runoff entering roadside
drains, irrigation canals with turnouts, stormwater channels) or outflows (such as side weirs,
spillways, seepage).
• Characteristics of SVF:
1. Discharge variation:

where q is lateral inflow/outflow per unit length of channel.

• q>0: inflow (increasing discharge)
• q<0: outflow (decreasing discharge)
2. Depth variation: Flow depth y changes along the channel, governed by the dynamic equation of SVF.
3. Driving forces: Channel slope (S0), friction slope (Sf​), inertia, and momentum effects of
added/removed discharge.
4. Mathematical model: The dynamic equation for SVF is:
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Dynamic Equation for Spatially Varied Flows (SVF):
• Spatially Varied Flow (SVF) is steady open-channel flow in which discharge varies with
distance along the channel (e.g., lateral inflow, withdrawals).
Assumptions for Deriving the Dynamic Equation
To derive the governing equation for SVF, the following assumptions are made:

• Let q=dQ/dx​ be lateral inflow per unit length (positive for inflow, negative for outflow)
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• Notations:

• Consider a short control length, dx. Apply steady linear momentum (per unit weight or per
unit mass). Using mass and momentum balances.
The change in streamwise momentum = net component of weight (gravity) + momentum
added by lateral inflow − frictional resistance
• A compact derivation (taking lateral inflow velocity ≈ local mean velocity) yields:

--------Eq(1)
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Explanation:

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Flow Profile Computations:
• Flow profile computations are carried out to determine the water surface profile in such
situations (for example, in rivers, canals, or channels with control structures).

• The basic equation used is derived from the energy equation:

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Methods of Computation
Since the governing equation is differential, numerical methods are used for practical
computation:
1. Direct Step Method (Energy Method)
1. The Energy equation is applied between two sections.
2. Water depth is computed by assuming a trial depth and checking the energy difference.
3. Common for channels with prismatic (uniform) cross-sections.
2. Standard Step Method (Dynamic Equation Method)
1. Uses the gradually varied flow equation in finite steps along the channel length.
2. Water depth at the next section is computed from the known depth at the previous
section.
3. Widely used in hydraulic computations.

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Flow Profiles in SVF:
▪ With lateral inflow:
• Water depth gradually increases.
• Example: Irrigation canals, channels receiving stormwater inflow.
▪ With lateral outflow:
• Water depth gradually decreases.
• Example: Channels with side weirs, sluices, or spillways.

Applications:
• Design of irrigation canals with distributaries.
• Analysis of side weirs, spillways, and sluice gates.
• Flood routing in natural channels with inflow/outflow.
• Urban drainage systems with continuous stormwater inflow.

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Types of Flow Profiles in GVF:
Based on slope and flow depth, the profiles are categorized as:
• Mild slope (M1, M2, M3)
• Steep slope (S1, S2, S3)
• Critical slope (C1, C2)
• Horizontal slope (H1, H2)
• Adverse slope (A1, A2)
These profiles are determined by comparing actual depth with normal depth (yn​) and critical
depth (yc​).

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 79

Introduction to Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS):
• HEC-RAS is advanced software widely-used for hydraulic modeling of such flows in channels
and rivers developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers.
• It solves 1D and 2D hydraulic equations for both steady and unsteady flow in natural and
artificial channels, levees, and floodplains.

Steps in HEC-RAS for Steady Varied Flow:

1. Define geometry: Draw the river system, add cross-sections, channel properties, and
structures.
2. Set flow data: Specify steady flow profiles, boundary conditions, and discharge values.
3. Perform analysis: HEC-RAS computes water surface elevations, profiles, and detailed
hydraulic results.
4. Visualize results: Output includes tables, graphs, and inundation maps for interpretation.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 80

Application of HEC-RAS in SVF:
• Simulates gradually varied flow profiles in rivers and canals.
• Analyzes the backwater effect caused by dams, weirs, and bridges.
• Helps in design and safety assessment of waterways and flood control structures.
• Generates longitudinal water surface profiles and cross-sectional views.
• Provides data for floodplain zoning and management.

Advantages of HEC-RAS:
1. Accuracy: Provides reliable water surface elevations and energy grades.
2. Versatility: Can handle complex boundary conditions.
3. User-friendly: Offers graphical interfaces, maps, and detailed reports.
4. Acceptance: Widely used in academic research, consultancy, and government projects.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 81

Classification of Flows:
• In open channel hydraulics, flow can be classified into different categories based on how
discharge and depth change along the channel. Two important classifications are:
• Understanding these flows is important for the design, operation, and safety of hydraulic
structures like dams, spillways, weirs, canals, and barrages.
1. Spatially Varied Flows (SVF): SVF occurs when flow discharge is not constant along the
channel length, but either increases (inflow case) or decreases (outflow case).
Characteristics:
• Change in discharge is gradual.
• Depth of flow also varies gradually.
• Flow is usually steady and one-dimensional.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 82

Applications of SVF:
1. Side Weirs in Canals and Rivers:
Used to divert excess flood water safely into a drain or reservoir.
2. Spillways of Dams:
Water is gradually removed from the reservoir into the downstream channel.
3. Seepage Losses in Canals:
Discharge decreases gradually as water seeps into the soil.
4. Rainfall Runoff in Natural Streams:
Tributaries and surface runoff gradually increase discharge downstream.
5. Irrigation Canal Networks:
Outlets withdraw water for farms, reducing discharge progressively along the canal.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 83

2. Rapidly Varied Flows (RVF): RVF occurs when depth of flow changes abruptly in a very short
channel reach, often involving turbulence, high energy loss, and complex flow patterns.
Characteristics:
• Non-hydrostatic pressure distribution.
• Localized and short in length.
• High energy dissipation.
Applications of RVF:
1. Hydraulic Jumps:
• Occur downstream of spillways and sluice gates to dissipate energy and prevent erosion.
2. Flow over Spillways and Weirs:
• Water accelerates rapidly and plunges downstream with high turbulence.
3. Transitions in Canals:
• Sudden expansion or contraction causes abrupt depth variation.
4. Sluice Gates and Orifices:
• Flow depth changes suddenly at the gate opening.
5. Chutes and Drop Structures:
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Designed to handle abrupt dropsDr. in elevation with controlled energy dissipation. 84
K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa
 UNIT-III: Unsteady Flows in Open Channels
Introduction:
• In open channel hydraulics, unsteady flow refers to the condition in which the flow
parameters such as depth, velocity, and discharge vary with both space and time.
• Unlike steady flow, where conditions remain constant with time at a given location, unsteady
flow captures the transient and dynamic behavior of water movement.
• Unsteady flow commonly occurs in natural rivers, canals, and man-made channels due to
factors such as:
▪ Sudden release of water from dams or reservoirs
▪ Flood waves caused by heavy rainfall
▪ Tidal effects in estuaries (river meets the sea (or) ocean)
▪ Closure or opening of gates in hydraulic structures
• To mathematically describe unsteady open channel flows, the Saint-Venant equations (one-
dimensional continuity and momentum equations) are widely used. These equations form the
basis for flood routing, reservoir operations, river engineering, and flood forecasting models.
• Understanding unsteady flows is essential in hydrology, irrigation engineering, water
resources management, and hydraulic structure design since it helps predict flood behavior,
13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa
ensure dam safety, and optimize water distribution. 85
Equations of Unsteady Motion – Saint-Venant Equations for Unsteady Flow in Open Channels:
• Unsteady flow in open channels occurs when flow parameters such as depth, velocity, and
discharge vary with both time and space.
• To describe such flows, Adhémar Barré de Saint-Venant (1871) formulated a set of one-
dimensional equations derived from the principles of conservation of mass (continuity) and
conservation of momentum. These are known as the Saint-Venant Equations.
1. Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

Where,
A = cross-sectional flow area (m²)
Q = discharge (m³/s)
x = distance along the channel (m)
t = time (s)
q = lateral inflow per unit length (m²/s)
• This equation states that the rate of change of storage in the channel plus the change in
discharge along the channel equals external inflow.
13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 86
2. Momentum Equation (Conservation of Momentum)

Where,
h = flow depth (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
C = Chezy’s coefficient (or related to Manning’s n)
• This equation expresses the balance between local acceleration, convective acceleration,
pressure forces, gravity, and frictional resistance.

Assumptions of Saint-Venant Equations:

• One-dimensional flow (velocity is uniform over a cross-section).
• Hydrostatic pressure distribution (no vertical acceleration).
• Channel bed slope is small.
• Resistance laws (Manning’s or Chezy’s) are applicable.
• 13-09-2025
Channel is prismatic or graduallyDr.varied.
K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 87
Applications:
1. Flood routing in rivers and reservoirs.
2. Dam-break analysis.
3. Tidal flow modeling in estuaries.
4. Design and operation of irrigation canals.
5. Prediction of unsteady flow in urban drainage and stormwater systems.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 88

Wave Propagation Open Channels:
• Unsteady flow in open channels often involves the movement of waves caused by
disturbances in flow depth or velocity.
• These waves can be classified into different types based on the governing equations and
flow characteristics.
• The Saint-Venant equations provide the theoretical basis, but simplifications lead to different
wave models such as Kinematic, Diffusive and Dynamic Waves, Positive and Negative Surges.

1. Kinematic Waves:
• Derived by neglecting inertial and pressure terms in the momentum equation, retaining only
gravity and friction balance.
• Governed by the continuity equation and a resistance relationship (e.g., Manning’s
equation).
• Wave speed depends only on the discharge–flow area relationship.

Wave celerity (kinematic wave speed):

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 89

Applications:
• Overland flow on catchments.
• Flood routing in steep rivers and channels.
• Stormwater drainage.

2. Diffusive Waves:
• Obtained by retaining the pressure term (water surface slope) but neglecting inertial terms
in the momentum equation.
• Accounts for backwater effects and diffusion of waves, unlike kinematic waves.
• More accurate for mild slopes and long channels.
Applications:
• Flood routing in natural rivers.
• Tidal flow in mild-slope channels.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 90

3. Dynamic Waves:
• Full solution of the Saint-Venant equations (continuity + momentum) with all terms
retained:
• Local acceleration
• Convective acceleration
• Pressure forces
• Gravity
• Friction
• Represent the most accurate model of unsteady flow.
Applications:
• Dam-break analysis.
• Flood wave propagation in rivers.
• Surges in canals and estuaries.

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 91

4. Surges in Open Channels:
• A surge is a sudden change in flow depth and velocity that propagates as a wave through the
channel.
• Surges are classified as positive or negative based on whether depth increases or decreases.
(a) Positive Surge
• A sudden increase in depth and water surface elevation.
Caused by:
• Rapid closure of a downstream gate
• Sudden inflow (e.g., flood wave, dam release)
• Moves upstream or downstream depending on channel conditions.
(b) Negative Surge
• A sudden decrease in depth (drawdown wave).
Caused by:
• Rapid opening of a downstream gate
• Sudden withdrawal of water
• Leads to lowering of water level propagating as a wave.
13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 92
Surge Velocity (V_s):
• For a positive surge in a rectangular channel:

Where,
V = initial flow velocity
h1​, h2​ = initial and surge depths
g = acceleration due to gravity

Summary:
1. Kinematic waves: Simplest model, valid for steep slopes and neglects pressure/inertia.
2. Diffusive waves: Include pressure/backwater effects but neglect inertia.
3. Dynamic waves: Full Saint-Venant equations, most accurate.
4. Surges: Rapid flow depth changes → Positive (increase in depth) or Negative (decrease in
depth).

13-09-2025 Dr. K. Shaiksha Vali, KSRMCE, Kadapa 93