Orientation

To

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Yogesh Misra Mody Institute of Technology & Science (Deemed University) Faculty of Engineering & Technology Sikar [Raj.]

[Q] What is a controller?

Ans. A controller is used to control some process.

[Q] How much big it is? Ans. In 50s, it was of the size of room, in 60s it was of the size of a board and now it is fitted in a chip due to the development in the IC fabrication technology. [Q] What is an Embedded System ? Ans. An embedded system is a controller which is embedded in a system to perform single task repeatedly OR An Embedded System is a microprocessor based system that is embedded as a subsystem, in a larger system

General Characteristics of Embedded Systems

Perform a single / few task Reactive and meet real time constrained Tightly constrained

Embedded System Structure

Sensor ADC Processor DAC Actuator

Essential Components Processor (P, C , DSP or ASIC) Sensor (it convert a physical quantity into electrical signal) Converters (ADC and DAC) Actuator (it transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy) Memory (On-chip / Off chip) Communication path with the interacting environment

Application of Embedded Systems

microwave oven air conditioner cell phones swing machine Printer fuel injection control ABS Many more

(1) Automated Car Assembly Plant

At each workstation, a sensor senses the arrival of the partially assembled car chassis.

As soon as the partially assembled car chassis is sensed, the workstation begins to perform its work on the car chassis.
Car Chassis Car Chassis Car Chassis

Car Chassis

Car Chassis

Fit Engine

Fit Door

Fit Wheel

Spray Paint

Finished Car

Conveyor Belt

(2) Chemical Plant Control

A real-time computer monitors periodically the pressure, temperature and plant conditions. Based on the values of these parameters the real-time computer generates a corrective signal which control the reaction rate at that instant within certain predetermined time bounds.

(3) Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) System

MPFI is a real-time system that controls the rate of fuel injection and allows the engine of a car to operate at its optimal efficiency. In older model of cars, a mechanical device called carburettor was used to control the fuel injection rate to the engine.

A microcontroller (embedded system) receives the data from various sensors. These sensors constantly monitor the engine rpm, vehicle road speed, emission gas content, exhaust temperature, the engine coolant temperature, etc.
Depending upon the data received by various sensors the microcontroller control the PULSE WIDTH

which ultimately controls the duration for which the injector valve is open.

(4) Laser Printer

Laser printers have microcontrollers embedded in them to control different activities associated with printing. The important activities that a microcontroller embedded in a laser printer performs include: getting data from the communication port, typesetting fonts, sensing paper jams, noticing when the printer runs out of paper, sensing when the user presses a button on the control panel, displaying various messages to the user, etc.

(5) Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)

The ABS is designed to help the driver maintain steering control during hard braking, especially in slippery conditions. Due to sudden application of brake a car without ABS skids out on a slippery road. This is because all the wheels are locked up when the brake pedal is holding down. As a result, you lose the ability to steer the vehicle. The ABS prevents the wheels from locking up and help us in maintain steering control during braking.

How the actual ABS system works

Major components of the typical ABS system include:

(i) (ii) Four speed sensors (one at each wheel) An electronic control unit (microcontroller)

(iii) A hydraulic control unit. The microcontroller constantly monitors the signal from each wheel speed sensor. When it senses that any of the wheels are approaching lock up during braking, the microcontroller sends the signal to the hydraulic control unit, which modulates the braking pressure for a corresponding wheel(s) preventing it from locking up.

(A) Wheel speed sensor

(B) ABS control module

(C) Hydraulic motor and pressure release valves

(D) Brake pipe leading to caliper

Due to heavy brake pedal application let the green wheel is about to lock up. The ABS control module (B)
detects this locking up of the wheel through the sensor (A) and reacts by releasing the brake pressure slightly by rapidly opening a pressure release valve (C). This lowers the pressure in the brake pipe (D) which causes the brake caliper to loosen its grip on the brake disc on the locking wheel. If this corrects the locked wheel, the hydraulic motor (C) will build up the pressure again to the optimum braking force and the valve will revert to the closed position.

Design Metrics
[To be optimized by design engineer] 1. NRE Cost 2. Unit Cost

3. Size 4. Power
5. Performance 6. Flexibility 7. Time-to-Prototype

8. Time-to-market 9. Maintainability 10. Safety and Reliability

Embedded System Design Technology

1. Processor Technology
It relates to the architecture of processor used to implement the desired functionality

2. IC Technology
It relates with the different technologies involve for the implementation of processors onto an IC

3. Design Technology
It relates with the way how we convert our idea of desired functionality into an implementation

1. Processor Technology
(A) General-Purpose Processors
Advantages: Low Time to market Low NRE Cost ,

High Flexibility
Unit cost low for small quantities

Disadvantages: Unit cost high for large quantities Size and power is more

1. Processor Technology
(B) Single Purpose Processors
Advantages: Fast performance Size and power is small

Unit cost low for large quantities

Disadvantages: High NRE High Time to market Low flexibility Unit cost high for small quantities Size and power is more

1. Processor Technology

(C) Application-Specific Processors (ASIP)

It is a programmable processor optimized for a particular class of applications having common characteristics.

Embedded control application

Digital Signal Processing application

Telecommunication application

IC Technology Full Custom ASIC Technology

Full Custom ASICs are designed from scratch for complex, one-of-a-kind applications.

Advantages of the full custom ASIC are:

* Silicon area is small * High processing speed * Low power dissipation

Disadvantages of the full custom ASIC are:

* Maximum design effort * Longest time-to-market

IC Technology Semi Custom ASIC Technology

Semi Custom ASICs implement their functionality by using pre-designed building blocks, called cells.

Advantages of the Semi custom ASIC are:

* Reduced design effort * Reduced time-to-market

Disadvantages of the full custom ASIC are:

* More design effort * Long time-to-market

IC Technology

Standard Cell Based Design

(i) A logic is built by combining standard logic blocks (called cells) to form the overall logic function.

(ii)

The manufacturer provides a Standard library of such cells.

(iii) Each cell is deigned at transistor level.

Various Cells

VDD

VDD

NOT
In

out

GND

GND

VDD

VDD

VDD

VDD
In 1

In 1

NAND2

NOR2
out In 2

out

In 2 GND GND GND

GND

Creating Cell F using Basic cells

VDD

NOT

NAND2

NOR2
F

GND

VDD

VDD

Cell F
F

GND

GND

* Now Cell F is as basic as cell NOT, cell NAND and cell NOR

Standard Cell Based Design

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

F1

F2

F3

Final Design

Gate Array Based Design

Reduce development cost by reducing no of custom Masks required Now suppose out of 12 masks , 10 are common and shared by 100 different customers and only two are Customer programmable Every design is made of interconnection of N and P Transistors! From an array of such transistors any Circuit can potentially be made

Step-I
An array of uncommitted transistors are fabricated on the chip using standard mask.

Step-II
As per the requirement uncommitted transistors are interconnected by defining the metal interconnect using custom mask.
The design time is less because designer can purchase the uncommitted transistors chip from the market and he has to concentrate only on the interconnection part.

Uncommitted Transistor Array

Gate Array Design for 2 input NAND gate

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

(1) PLDs were first introduced in 1970 (2) PLD is a user configurable chip (3) PLD consist of logic gates and programmable switches
(4) In PLD technology a designer purchase the IC (PLD) before the start of the design.
(5) The design is implemented in PLD by programming. The programming means creating or destroying the connections between the logic gates. (6) No mask is required.

Various types of PLDs available are : (1) ROM (Read Only Memory) (2) PLA (Programmable Logic Array) (3) PAL (Programmable Array Logic) (4) CPLD (Complex PLD) (5) FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)

PLA
X1 X2
...................

Xn

Input Buffers & Inverters X1 X1 X2 X2 .. Xn Xn P1 P2 Programmable OR Plane

..

Programmable AND Plane

Pk

F1 F2

Fm

Gate level diagram of PLA

2 Inputs, 3 Product terms and 2 Outputs A B

Programmable AND Plane

Output-1 Output-2 Programmable OR Plane

Implement OF Half Adder In PLA.

A B AB

AB AB

Sum

Carry

Programmable Array Logic (PAL)

X1 X2 Xn

Input Buffers & Inverters

X1 X1 X2 X2 .. Xn Xn

Programmable AND Plane

P1 P2 Pk

Fixed OR Plane
..

F1 F2

Fm

Gate level diagram of PAL

2Inputs, 4 Product terms and 2 Outputs
A B

Output-1

Output-2

Programmable AND Plane Fixed OR Plane

Design of BCD to Excess-3 code converter using PAL

B3 B2 B1 B0

P1

E0
P2
P3 P4 P5 P6

E1

E2

P7

P8
P9

E3

B3

B2

B1

B0

P1

P2
P3 P4 P5 P6

P7
P8 P9

E3

E2

E1

E0

FPGA
PLD`S[Like ROM ,PAL,PLA,& CPLD] are used for two level logic implementation.[2-level logic is useful for relatively small logic function]. FPGA`s are used for multi-level logic implementation ie for complex logic. FPGA`s can be programmed while it is in the circuit.

Basic elements of FPGA : CLB(Combinational Logic Block) PIA(Programmable Interconnect Array) I/O (Input output) Pins (1). CLB : FPGA contains two dimensional array of CLB`s .The required logic is implemented in CLB`s.In CLB the basic element to store a logic is LUT. A flipflop is generally used as storing element in LUT for storing one bit. Generally 4-input LUT is used. (2). PIA : a pia is used to interconnect two CLB`s. The PIA`s are organized as horizontal and vertical channels. Interconnections are required not only between the CLB`s and wires but also between horizontal and vertical wires. (3). I/O Blocks : Input /Output pins are referred as I/O Blocks.Any pin can be made input or output pin through programming.

Field Programmable Gate Array

A Comparison Full Custom

Performance Very High Medium

Semi custom
Standard Cell GateArray Medium

FPGA
Low

Silicon Utilization Time-to-market

Volume

Very High Very Long

Very High

Medium Long
High

Low Fast
Medium

Low Very Fast

Low

Design Technology
[It is the way by which we convert the idea of our desired functionality into an implementation]

Design Idea

VHDL Model Simulation Simulated Waveforms Synthesis

Circuit Generated

Circuit Implemented

Simulation Tool

VHDL Model

Compile It (e.g Modelsim)

Syntax Error Exists

Generated Waveforms

Synthesis Tool
Inputs to Synthesis Tool are: - HDL Description - Device Selection (Target Technology) - Information about design priority ( area vs speed )

Output of Synthesis Tool: - Gate level Netlist [EDIF file]

VHDL Model Information about Device

Design Priority (area vs speed) Synthesis Tool (e.g Leonardospectrum)

Netlist Generated for Target Technology

Place & Route Tool

Place tool takes the gate level netlist generated by Synthesis tool and figure out which logic blocks in the chip should contain which logic and where these logic blocks are placed inside the chip (this is called floor planning). Route Tool makes interconnections between various logic blocks.

EDIF File

Place & Route Tool

Bit Map File [ for FPGA ] GDS II File [ for cell based design ]

Technology Schematic of Half Adder

Figure 20 Technology Schematic [Half Adder]

Result of a Place Tool after placement of various logic blocks

Logic inside FPGA