KPLI – Education Studies
THEMES
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
Philosophy of
Student development,
Education, Profesionalisme of
Process of teaching and
curriculum Teachers
learning and its effects
and role of teacher
KPLI – Education Studies
Theme 2 Theme 3
Theories of learning – 6 hrs Reflective teaching – 5 hrs
- Behaviourism - Meaning of reflective
- Cognitive practioner
- Humanistic - Process of reflective teaching
- Constructivism - Follow- up actions
Models of teaching – 5 hrs
- Expository Teacher in the new millennium –
- Inquiry 5 hrs
- Discovery
- Discussion Relationship with society
Method of Teaching- 7 hrs - Teachers’ Code of Ethnics
- Discussion - Accountability
- Demonstration
- Problem-solving Educational changes
- Group teaching - Smart School education
- Simulation - Globalisation of education
- Project - The knowledge worker
- Team Teaching
Lesson Planning – 3 hrs
INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES
What is learning?
What are the learning theory?
What are the learning theories?
Why educators need to know
learning theories?
INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES
What to cover in each theories?
Definition of learning theory?
What is learning according to the mentioned learning
theories?
What are the assumptions underlying the mentioned
learning theories?
What are the principles of the mentioned learning theories?
What are the major learning concepts highlighted in
mentioned learning theories?
What are some of the instructional application of
behavorist learning theories or implication on classroom
teaching learning? ( Focus on major learning concepts in
each learning theories
What are your personal comment on applicablity and the
limitations of the mentioned learning theories?
Before advent of behaviorism
Structuralism – look inside their mind and
describe what people think
(introspection)
More objective approach which focus on
observable phenomena called behaviorist approach
Behavoirism investigate the observable behavior
of organisms ( humans, animals) resulting from
exposure to different stimuli (reinforcement,
punishment, conditioning)
There many ways that learning can take place
Learning theories can be grouped into
behavioral, cognitive, humanistic and
constructivist.
Behavioral – learning as change in form or
frequency of observable behavior.
Cognitive – learning as a mental activity that
entails internal acitivity and structuring
Humanistic – Learning is influenced by individual
differences – needs and attitude towards
learning.
Constructivist – Learning is creating meaning
from experience
LEARNING THEORISTS
LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVOIRIS KOGNTIF HUMANIS
MAX WERTHEIMER CONSTRUCTIVIST
PAVLOV CARL ROGERS
KOFKA & KOHLER PIAGET (COGNITIVE)
WATSON ABRAHAM MASLOW
BRUNER VYGOTSKY (SOCIAL)
SKINNER COMBS
THORNDIKE GAGNE
AUSUBEL
NEOBEHAVOIRIS PIAGET
(SOSIAL)
BANDURA
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY
Assumption
– equipotentiality between human and animals, termed organism
- Blank slate organism not predisposed to behave in particular ways
- We are biological machines and do not consciously act rather we
react to stimuli
- Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors (behavioral
objective, criterion-reference assessment)
Study – generalized but naturalistics
Primary Focus – Observable behavior
- Stimulus-response connections
Learning is a result of environmental forces
- learner is stimulated by environment and
passively adapts to the circumstances
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY
Learning
Learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour
Learning is is acquisition of new behaviour without referring to
mental process
Learning is a result of environmental forces
Learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to the
circumstances
BEHAVIORIST THEORIST
Classical Conditioning (Respondent)
Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental)
Edward L.Thorndike
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
John B Watson
Social Learning (Observational)
Bandura
BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF
LEARNING
Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behavior
Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but
depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli,
responses and the consequences of behavior
Knowledge base – declarative knowledge in the form of rules,
concepts and discrimination
Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-
response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology
Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and
discount mental activities
Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our
conditioning
Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within
the environment and response (R) by an organism
BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and
discount mental activities
Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our
conditioning
Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within
the environment and response (R) by an organism
Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-
response, hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology
The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a
behavior (B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that
determines whether the behavior will occur again
BEHAVIORIST THEORY OF LEARNING
Refer learning as conditioning. Our behavior is the product of our
conditioning
Learning is explained without referring to the mental process but
depend on investigations of relationship among stimuli, responses and
the consequences of behavior
Learning is viewed as adapting to the environment and is seen largely
as a passive process
Assume learner is stimulated by environment and passively adapts to
the circumstances
Behaviourism focusses on objectively observable behaviors and
discount mental activities
Criterias of observation and measurement ie stimuli (s) within the
environment and response (R) by an organism
Principles of learning reflect relationship between stimulus-response,
hence behaviorism is sometimes called S-R psychology
The environment presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior
(B) that is followed by some consequences (C) that determines
whether the behavior will occur again
Behavorism – How does learning occur?
Learning is change in either the form or frequency of
observable performance or behaviour
Learning is demonstrated following the presentation of a
specific environmental stimulus
Primary concern is how the association between the stimulus
and response is made, strengthened or maintained
Responses followed by reinforcement are more likely to occur
in the future
Learner and environmental factors – the arrangement of
stimuli and consequences within the environment
Example
Flashcard (stimulus) Answer (response)Praise (good
conseqence)
Promote overt performance by manipulation of stimulus
material
Learner – reactive to conditions in environment rather than
being active
Focus on the importance of the consequences of those
performances – response followed by reinforcement more
likely to occur in future
Behavorism – Which factors influence learning?
Environmental conditions
The arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the
enironment
Which point to begin instruction and which reinforcers are
most effective
Behavorism – Representations of the learning process
Stimulus –Response
Reinforced Behavior
ABC - Antecendent Behavior Consequence (The environment
presents an antecedent (A)that prompt a behavior (B) that is
followed by some consequences (C) that determines
whether the behavior will occur again)
Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical limited
steps
BEHAVIORIST- Assumption and principles
Assumption- equipotentiality between human and animals,
termed organism
Blank slate – organism not predisposed to behave in
particular ways
We are biological machines and do not consciously act
rather we react to stimuli
Emphasis on observable and measurable behaviors
( behavioral objective, criterion-reference assessment)
Use cue, shaping and practice to ensure strong stimulus-
response association ( simple to complex practice, use of
prompts)
Use feedback to modify behavior
Knowledge is mind independent and can be mapped onto a
learner
Learning happens when a correct response is
deomonstrated following the presentation of a specific
environmental stimulus
Behavoirist theory – Application For Instructional and learning strategies
- Use discrimination (recalling of facts )
- Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts)
- Use associations (applying explanations)
- Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)
- Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students
(behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced
assessment)
- Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing
instructional presentation,mastery of learning)
- Use of hints or cues that guide students to desired behavior( Use
instructional cues to elicit correct response
- Use of shaping (build fluency by getting response closer and closer
to correct response)
- Use of Practice (practice paired with target stimuli practice to
ensure a strong stimulus-response association (simple to complex
sequencing of practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts)
- Use reinforcement for correct response and to impact performance
(tangible rewards,informative feedback)
- Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice)
- Ancedent Behavior Consequence ( Use consequence to reinforce desired
behavior – disipline)
Russian physiologist who develop the theory of learning
called the classical conditioning
When a stimulus (meat) is repeatedly presented in
association with one or more other stimuli (bell), those other
stimuli begin to elicit a similar response (salivation)
Classical conditioning is important in the learning of emotional
responses
Pavlov - Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning - a natural reflex to a stimulus
Also known as respondent conditioning
Learning an involuntary response to a particular stimulus eg
fearful reaction to bees can be explained by classical
conditioning
Experiment on dog salivation and conditioned reflexes
Step 1 NS (bell) (no response)
Step 2 NS (bell)
UCS ( Meat) UCR (salivate)
Step 3 CS (bell) CR ( salivate)
Change of dog behavior due to experience
A form of signal learning – conditioned stimulus serves as a
signal that the unconditioned stimulus is coming
Useful in understanding a variety of involuntary responses
Pavlov classical conditioning- a form of learning through
association
Classical conditioning- Higher Order
Step 1 NS (bell)
UCS (meat) UCR (salivate)
Step 2 CS (bell) CR (salivate)
Step 3 NS (light)
CS (bell) CR (salivate)
Step 4 CS (light) CR ( salivate)
Example
Failure ---punishment
Presentation associated with failure
Test another situation . Test develop anxiety, phobias
Basic concepts in Classical conditioning
Extinction
- Disappearance of a conditioned response when a
conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditoned stimulus is called extinction
Spontaneous recovery
- Reccurence of response after extinction
Stimulus Generalization
- Respond to other stimulus the same way the repond to
conditioned stimuli ( eg fear of rat – all fury stuff)
Stimulus discrimination
-Learn a conditioned response to CS+ ( high pitch+ meat) but
does not generalize to response to CS- (low pitch without meat)
Classical conditioning –
application/implication
Conditioning – disipline – bell – line up
Higher Conditioning eg Pairing – Picture
with words, Diagrams with formulae
Generalization – Use various related
examples
Discrimination – Article summary
Reinforcement – praises
Law of Exercise – sufficient excercises
and practice
Watson ‘Little Albert Experiment’
J Watson – Psychologist, founder of American behavoirism
All learning is a matter of response that are selected and sequenced
Emphasized the need for focussing on observable behaviors rather than
nonobservable behaviors
Influenced by work of pavlov
- adopted the classically conditioned S-R as basic unit of learning
Asserted that past experience accounts for virtually all behavior
Extreme environmentalism, denied any effect on behavior by hereditary
factors
Experiment – Rat and 11 year old Albert
Rat – Intially Albert no fear, play with it
Rat pair with noise – Albert develop fear
Rat and other furry things – Albert fear
Principles developed
- Emotional responses are conditioned to various stimuli as a result
of pairings that occur between conditioned stimuli such as
distinctive sound, smell, sight or anger
- Emotional responses can spread to stimuli to which they have not
been conditional, but that resemble conditioned stimuli
~ It is possible to condition negative emotional reactions by
repeatedly pairing a stimulus oridinarily associated with some
negative emotion with another distinctive stimulus
Law of frequency
The more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association
with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will become
Law of recency
The response that has most recently occurred after a particular
stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that
stimulus
Watson’s theory
All behaviour can be learned through conditioning – positive
behaviour can be taught by using suitable stimulus
To master skills of solving problems, pupil ought to relate the
relationship between all responses systematically
Use suitable stimulus - motivation
Assert that people’s behavior can be controlled through the
judiciuos and clever arrangement of stimulus and response
-Lends itself to rigid prescriptions for child rearing and education
as well as for training and control in the military and industry
Law of frequency
The more frequently a stimulus and response occur in
association with each other, the stronger that S-R habit will
become
Law of recency
The response that has most recently occurred after a particular
stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that
stimulus
TEORI WATSON - APPLIKASI
Kemungkinan reaksi emosi seseorang kepada pelbagai situasi
mungkin dipelajari melalui pelaziman lazim.
Contohnya:
Seseorang merasa gementar apabila melihat guru
disiplin. Mungkin sebelum ini dia telah melakukan kesalahan
dan telah didenda. Ini menyebabkan ia takut. Pembelajaran
tetang emosi, sikap, idea dapat dipelajari disekolah.
Kadang-kadang pembelajaran emosi dapat menganggu
pembelajaran akademik.
Proposed the principles of operant conditioning
Use term reinforcer instead of reward
The consequence of behavior determine the probability
that the behavior will occur again
Learning is a function of change in overt behavior
Humans are trainable with stimulus-response techniques
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s theory
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired
response.
Positive reinforcement – verbal praise
Negative reinforcement – increased frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn
Shaping – reinforcing sucessive approximations to the
desired behavior
Law of extinction
A response that is not followed by a reinforcing
stimulus is weaken and therefore less likely to
occur again
Acknowledge the existence of thought, reflected
in verbal behavior
Contended that the causes of mental events lie in
the environment
Application (Behavorial objectives, programmed
instruction and behavior modification)
Operant conditioning
Learning is equated to a change in overt behavior
Operant Operant or behavioral conditioning – a simple feedback system – if a
reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus then the stimulus
becomes more probable in the future
Changes in behavoir are the result of an individual responding to events in the
environment (stimuli)
Human are trainable with stimulus-response technique
When stimulus-Response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is
conditioned to respond
All behavior- academic, social, psychomotor can be learned or modified
Operant conditioning - we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior
has had certain consequences in the past
Describe associative learning- there is a contingency between response and
the presentation of the reinforcer
When stimulus-response pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is
conditioned to respond
Reinforcer is anything that strengthen a response
Reinforcement .. The act following a response with a reinforcer
3 conditions for operant conditioning
- The reinforcer must follow the response, must follow immediately,must be
contigent on the response
2 types of reinforcement – positive and negative
Positive reinforcement – verbal praise
Negative reinforcement – any stimulus that results in the increasd frequency
of a response when it is withdrawn
Basic processes in Operant conditioning
Operant – a voluntary response that has a particular effect
on the environment
Acquisition - Shaping- sucessive approximation to form the desired
response
Extinction – gradual weakening and finally dissappearance of
a response tendency by removal of positive reinforcement
Stimulus generalization Primary reinforcer – statifies
biological needs
Secondary reinforcer – conditioned reinforcer
Positive reinforcement – presentation of a stimulus after the
response
Negative reinforcement – increase in response through the
removal of a stimulus usually aversive or unpleasant one
Punishment – presentation of aversive stimulus or removal
of a stimulus
Operant conditioning- Implications
Skinner’s reinforcement principles are the
basis of many drill and practice exercises
–students receive praise or a positive
image when they get correct answer
Used to reward or punish students
Used in treatment of human disorders
such as autism and antisocial behavior
Operant behavior requires a goal
Differences between Classical and
operant conditioning
Classical Operant
Occurs when 2 stimulis Response ® is
(UCS& CS) followed by a
are paired reinforcing
stimulus
Nature of Involuntary Voluntary
Response elicit by stimulus emitted by
organism
Model CS-CR R- S
Objective (Behavorial objectives, programmed
instruction)
Emphasis on behavior – implications
- Students should be active respondents in
learning process rather than recipient
- Should observe student behavioral change as
a result of instruction
Extinction in behavior modification
Emphasis in behavior, drill practice, methods for
breaking habits
Rewards(reinforcements) for desired behavior
Behavioris define learning as a change due to
experience (discriminate information)
PENGENALAN
Manusia belajar melalui berbagai-bagai
cara.
Cara belajar dibahagikan kepada
mazhab behavioris, kognitif, sosial dan
humanis.
Mazhab behavioris menganggap
pembelajaran sebagai perubahan dalam
tingkahlaku.
Mazhab Kognitif menganggap
pembelajaran sebagai satu proses
dalaman yang tidak diperhatikan secara
langsung
Mazhab Humanis menekankan
perbezaan individu dan kehendak sikap
dalam pembelajaran.
Mazhab Sosial menganggap
pembelajaran meliputi aspek yang lebih
daripada tingkahlaku yang nyata.
Teori Pembelajaran Unsur Berkaitan Tokoh Psikologi
Behavioris Tingakahlaku, Pavlov
Pelaziman klasik Watson
(emosi) ,(tabiat) Guthrie
Pelaziman Operan, Thorndike
cuba-ralat dan
peneguhan Skinner
Kognitif Pemikiran, Celik akal, Koffka/Kohler,Br
(Gestalt) Penemuan, Kategori uner
pembelajaran, Resepi Gagne ,Ausuble
Sosial Prestasi Bandura
(neo behavioris) Pemodelan
Humanis Kemanusiaan Rogers
,Sempurna kendiri, Maslow
Keperluan asas dan
meta.
BEHAVIORIS
PELAZIMAN KLASIK
Pembelajaran haiwan dan Manusia yang terhasil
daripada gerak balas automatik terhadap
sesuatu rangsangan yang mula-mula tidak
memberikan sebarang kesan.
Behaviorisme adalah perhubungan antara
rangsangan (R) dengan gerak balas (G)
Tingkahlaku adalah gerakbalas yang nyata dan
dapat diramalkan.
TEORI PEMBELAJARAN
BEHAVIORAL
Pembelajaran sebagai satu perubahan dalam
bentuk atau frekuensi tingkahlaku.
Dalam bentuk pendekatan behavioral,
tingkahlaku pelajar dinilai sebelum memulakan
pengajaran.
Pembelajaran memerlukan penyususunan
(stimuli) rangsangan dalam persekitaran supaya
pelajar dapat respons dan diberi pengukuhan.
Pavlov mengenalpasti 3 proses lain,
1. Generalisasi
• Anjing juga akan mengeluarkan air liur sebagai
respons pada bunyi dan juga bunyi yang
hampir sama.
2. Diskriminasi
• Anjing respons pada 1 atau 2 ‘tone’ dengan
memastikan makanan diberi selepas 1 ‘tone’.
3. Pemunahan
• Rangsangan lazim diberi conyohnya bunyi tapi
tidak diikutidengan makanan.
• Gerak balaslazim (salivating) semakin tiada
akhirnya hilang terus.
Jadual: Pelaziman klasik Pavlov
Sebelum Proses Selepas
pelaziman pelaziman pelaziman
Rangsangan tak Eksperimen Rangsangan tak terlazim
terlazim 2.Bunyi loceng (makanan)
(Makanan) 3.Tunggu sementara
4.Diberikan makanan
Gerak balas tak 5.Proses berulang-ulang Gerak balas tak terlazim
terlazim (perembesan)
(perembesan)
DAN
TETAPI
Rangsangan Terlazim
Rangsangan
neutral (bunyi loceng)
(bunyi loceng)
Gerak balas terlazim
Tiada gerak balas (perembesan)
(tiada
perembesan)
Pavlov – Konsep yang
diperkenalkan
Penhapusan – Gerak balas terlazim dihentikan
Pembelajaran semula– Gerak balas terlazim
yang dihentikan dilakukan semula
Pemulihan semerta – Gerak balas terlazim di
lakukan semula serta merta
Generalisasi – Samakan rangsangan terlazim
dengan yang lain
Diskriminasi – Membezakan rangsangan terlazim
Manusia belajar menggunakan kaedah cuba
dan ralat.
Ganjaran dan denda dua faktor penting bantu
pembelajaran manusia.
Pembelajaran manusia berlaku mengikut
hubungan antara rangsangan dan gerak
balas.
Motivasi, ganjaran dan denda amata penting
dalam proses pembelajaran.
Beliau mengemukakan teori perikatan dikenali
sebagai Teori R-G.(Rangsangan dan Gerak
balas)
Guru memberi pujian Murid gembira
(rangsangan tak terlazim) (Gerak balas tak terlazim)
Pelaziman
Kehadiran guru Murid gembira
(rangsangan terlazim) (gerak balas terlazim)
Learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli and responses
Thorndike laws of learning
Law of effect
Pleasurable consequences oa response strengthened a
connection and annoying consequences weaken a
connection
Law of exercise
Law of use – the strength of a connection increases when
the connection is used
Law of disuse – the strength of a connection diminishes
when the connection is not used
Law of readiness
When an organism is not ready to act, forcing it to act
will be annoying.
HUKUM KESEDIAAN
THORNDIKE MENGATAKAN BAHAWA HUKUM
KESEDIAAN MERUJUK KEPADA PERSIAPAN YANG
PERLU ADA PADA ORGANISMA SEBELUM IA
BERTINDAK
UNTUK MELAKUKAN SESUATU AKTIVITI YANG
DIPERLUKAN, SESEORANG PERLU BERADA DALAM
KEADAAN FIZIKAL YANG BAIK DAN MEMPUNYAI
ARAS MOTIVASI YANG TINGGI
APABILA PELAJAR BERADA DALAM KEADAAN
BERSEDIA, DIA AKAN BERASA PUAS APABILA DIA
BERTINDAK
JIKA PELAJAR BELUM BERSEDIA UNTUK
BERTINDAK, DAN GURU MENYURUH PELAJAR
BERTINDAK, DIA AKAN BERASA KECEWA
OLEH ITU, GURU PERLU MELIHAT TAHAP
KESEDIAAN PELAJAR
HUKUM LATIHAN
PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN
GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH KUKUH JIKA
LATIHAN DIADAKAN
CONTOH - JIKA PELAJAR SELALU MENGULANG
KAJI RUMUSAN SIFIRNYA, DIA DAPAT
MENGINGATINYA DENGAN LEBIH SENANG
HUKUM LATIHAN MENYATAKAN BAHAWA SATU
TINGKAH LAKU AKAN DITEGUHKAN MELALUI
APLIKASI DAN AKAN DILEMAHKAN TANPA
PENGUKUHAN
HUKUM LATIHAN SANGAT SESUAI DIGUNAKAN
BAGI HAFALAN ATAU LATIHAN OTOT
HUKUM KESAN
SELEPAS GERAK BALAS TERHASIL,
PERTALIAN ANTARA RANGSANGAN DAN
GERAK BALAS AKAN BERTAMBAH
KUKUH JIKA TERDAPAT KESAN YANG
MENYERONOKKAN
KESAN YANG MENYAKITKAN AKAN
MELEMAHKAN PERTALIAN ANTARA
RANGSANGAN DAN GERAK BALAS
RUMUSAN THORNDIKE IALAH JIKA
TINGKAH LAKU DIIKUTI DENGAN
KEPUASAN IA AKAN DIULANG TETAPI
JIKA DIIKUTI DENGAN KESAKITAN IA
AKAN LENYAP
Teori Thorndike - Applikasi
~ For learning readiness, suitable motivation must be used.
~ To strengthen relationship between stimulus and
response – increase exercise, revision
~ Reward and reinforcement for right response.
~ Give student to experience
Menurut Skinner (1953) kajiannya
menunjukkan pelaziman operan
organisma bertindakbalas terhadap
persekitaran dalam proses pembelajaran
Pelaziman operan meningkatkan
kebarangkalian pengulangan sesuatu
gerak balas.
Peneguhan biasanya dapat
menambahkan kebarangkalian gerak
balas yang akan berlaku.
SEBELUM PELAZIMAN : Keadaan dalam bilik darjah
Berbagai-bagai gerak balas (pelajar)
Membaca buku Berbual-bual Berinteraksi
Komik dengan kawan dengan guru
Membaca kerja Bermain
lain dengan sesuatu
Terdapat pelbagai gerakbalas yang ditunjukkan oleh pelaajr terhadap pengajaran guru
PROSES PELAZIMAN
Gerak balas Ganjaran
Berinteraksi dgn guru Guru senyum,
puji dan beri
/tunjuk kasih
sayang
Application of behavoirist theory in learning
- Use discrimination (recalling of facts )
- Use generalizations (defining and illustrating concepts)
- Use associations (applying explanations)
- Use chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)
- Emphasis on observable and measurable outcomes in students
(behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced
assessment)
- Mastering early to complex level of performance (sequencing
instructional presentation,mastery of learning)
- Use of instructional cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong
stimulus-response association (simple to complex sequencing of
practice, arrange practice situations,use of prompts)
- Use reinforcement to impact performance (tangible rewards,
informative feedback)
Albert Bandura – Social Learning
Trial and error – hands on exploration to taste reality
Perception of object –
Modelling – copying by watching someone
