Chapter 1.

Basic Structure of Computers

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Functional Units

Functional Units
Input
Memory Output Control Arithmetic and logic

I/O

Processor

Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

Information Handled by a Computer

Instructions/machine instructions
Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as between the computer and its I/O devices Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed Program

Data
Used as operands by the instructions Source program

Encoded in binary code 0 and 1

Memory Unit

Store programs and data Two classes of storage

Primary storage
Fast Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed Large number of semiconductor storage cells Processed in words Address RAM and memory access time Memory hierarchy cache, main memory

Secondary storage larger and cheaper

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Most computer operations are executed in ALU of the processor. Load the operands into memory bring them to the processor perform operation in ALU store the result back to memory or retain in the processor. Registers Fast control of ALU

Control Unit

All computer operations are controlled by the control unit. The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also generated by the control unit. Control unit is usually distributed throughout the machine instead of standing alone. Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and store it in the memory Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control, into an ALU, where the information is processed Output the processed information through an output unit Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit

The processor : Data Path and Control

Data PC Address Instructions Instruction Memory Register # Register Bank Register # Register # Data A L U

Address

Data Memory

Two types of functional units: elements that operate on data values (combinational) elements that contain state (state elements)

Five Execution Steps

Step name Action for R-type instructions Action for Memoryreference Instructions IR = MEM[PC] PC = PC + 4 A = Reg[IR[25-21]] B = Reg[IR[20-16]] ALUOut = PC + (sign extend (IR[15-0])<<2) ALUOut = A op B ALUOut = A+sign extend(IR[15-0]) IF(A==B) Then PC=ALUOut PC=PC[3128]||(IR[250]<<2) Action for branches Action for jumps Instruction fetch

Instruction decode/ register fetch

Execution, address computation, branch/jump completion Memory access or R-type completion

Reg[IR[15-11]] = ALUOut

Load:MDR =Mem[ALUOut] or Store:Mem[ALUOut] = B Load: Reg[IR[20-16]] = MDR

Memory read completion

Basic Operational Concepts

Review

Activity in a computer is governed by instructions. To perform a task, an appropriate program consisting of a list of instructions is stored in the memory. Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor, which executes the specified operations. Data to be used as operands are also stored in the memory.

A Typical Instruction

Add LOCA, R0 Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the operand in a register R0 in the processor. Place the sum into register R0. The original contents of LOCA are preserved. The original contents of R0 is overwritten. Instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor the operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0 the resulting sum is stored in register R0.

Separate Memory Access and ALU Operation

Load LOCA, R1 Add R1, R0 Whose contents will be overwritten?

MAR

MDR Control

PC

R0 R1 Processor

Connection Between the Processor and the Memory

ALU Rn 1

IR

n general purpose registers

Figure 1.2. Connections between the processor and the memory.

Registers

Instruction register (IR) Program counter (PC) General-purpose register (R0 Rn-1) Memory address register (MAR) Memory data register (MDR)

Typical Operating Steps

Programs reside in the memory through input devices PC is set to point to the first instruction The contents of PC are transferred to MAR A Read signal is sent to the memory The first instruction is read out and loaded into MDR The contents of MDR are transferred to IR Decode and execute the instruction

Typical Operating Steps (Cont)

Get operands for ALU

General-purpose register Memory (address to MAR Read MDR to ALU)

Perform operation in ALU Store the result back

To general-purpose register To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR Write)

During the execution, PC is incremented to the next instruction

Interrupt

Normal execution of programs may be preempted if some device requires urgent servicing. The normal execution of the current program must be interrupted the device raises an interrupt signal. Interrupt-service routine Current system information backup and restore (PC, general-purpose registers, control information, specific information)

Bus Structures

There are many ways to connect different parts inside a computer together. A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices is called a bus. Address/data/control

Bus Structure
Input Output Memory Processor

Figure 1.3.

Single-bus structure.

Single-bus

Speed Issue

Different devices have different transfer/operate speed. If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest device connected to it, the efficiency will be very low. How to solve this? A common approach use buffers.

Performance

Performance

The most important measure of a computer is how quickly it can execute programs. Three factors affect performance:
Hardware design Instruction set Compiler

Performance

Processor time to execute a program depends on the hardware involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.

Main memory

Cache memory

Processor

Bus

Figure 1.5. The processor cache.

Performance

The processor and a relatively small cache memory can be fabricated on a single integrated circuit chip. Speed Cost Memory management

Processor Clock

Clock, clock cycle, and clock rate The execution of each instruction is divided into several steps, each of which completes in one clock cycle. Hertz cycles per second

Basic Performance Equation

T processor time required to execute a program that has been prepared in high-level language N number of actual machine language instructions needed to complete the execution (note: loop) S average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine instruction. Each step completes in one clock cycle R clock rate Note: these are not independent to each other

N S T R
How to improve T?

Pipeline and Superscalar Operation

Instructions are not necessarily executed one after another. The value of S doesnt have to be the number of clock cycles to execute one instruction. Pipelining overlapping the execution of successive instructions. Add R1, R2, R3 Superscalar operation multiple instruction pipelines are implemented in the processor. Goal reduce S (could become <1!)

Clock Rate

Increase clock rate

Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to make the circuits faster Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic step (however, this may increase the number of basic steps needed)

Increases in R that are entirely caused by improvements in IC technology affect all aspects of the processors operation equally except the time to access the main memory.

CISC and RISC

Tradeoff between N and S A key consideration is the use of pipelining

S is close to 1 even though the number of basic steps per instruction may be considerably larger It is much easier to implement efficient pipelining in processor with simple instruction sets

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

Compiler

A compiler translates a high-level language program into a sequence of machine instructions. To reduce N, we need a suitable machine instruction set and a compiler that makes good use of it. Goal reduce NS A compiler may not be designed for a specific processor; however, a high-quality compiler is usually designed for, and with, a specific processor.

Performance Measurement

T is difficult to compute. Measure computer performance using benchmark programs. System Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC) selects and publishes representative application programs for different application domains, together with test results for many commercially available computers. Compile and run (no simulation) Reference computer

Running time on the referencecomputer SPEC rating Running time on the computer under test SPEC rating ( SPECi )
i 1 n 1 n

Multiprocessors and Multicomputers

Multiprocessor computer
Execute a number of different application tasks in parallel Execute subtasks of a single large task in parallel All processors have access to all of the memory shared-memory multiprocessor Cost processors, memory units, complex interconnection networks

Multicomputers
Each computer only have access to its own memory Exchange message via a communication network messagepassing multicomputers

Chapter 2. Machine Instructions and Programs

Objectives

Machine instructions and program execution, including branching and subroutine call and return operations. Number representation and addition/subtraction in the 2s-complement system. Addressing methods for accessing register and memory operands. Assembly language for representing machine instructions, data, and programs. Program-controlled Input/Output operations.

Number, Arithmetic Operations, and Characters

Signed Integer

3 major representations:
Sign and magnitude Ones complement Twos complement

Assumptions:
4-bit machine word 16 different values can be represented Roughly half are positive, half are negative

Sign and Magnitude Representation

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
11 00 10 11 10 10 10 01 11 11 11 10

+0
00 00 +1 00 01 00 10

11 01

+2 +3 +4

+ 0 10 0 = + 4 1 10 0 = - 4 -

00 11 01 00 01 01 01 10 10 00 01 11

+5

-1

+6

-0

+7

High order bit is sign: 0 = positive (or zero), 1 = negative Three low order bits is the magnitude: 0 (000) thru 7 (111) Number range for n bits = +/-2n-1 -1 Two representations for 0

Ones Complement Representation

-0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
11 00 10 11 10 10 10 01 11 11 11 10

+0
00 00 +1 00 01 00 10

11 01

+2 +3 +4

+ 0 10 0 = + 4 1 01 1 = - 4 -

00 11 01 00 01 01 01 10 10 00 01 11

+5

-6

+6

-7

+7

Subtraction implemented by addition & 1's complement Still two representations of 0! This causes some problems Some complexities in addition

Twos Complement Representation

-1 -2 -3
like 1's comp except shifted one position clockwise
11 11 11 10

+0
00 00 +1 00 01 00 10

11 01

+2 +3 +4

+ 0 10 0 = + 4 1 10 0 = - 4 -

-4 -5 -6

11 00 10 11 10 10 10 01

00 11 01 00 01 01 01 10 10 00 01 11

+5

-7

+6

-8

+7

Only one representation for 0 One more negative number than positive number

Binary, Signed-Integer Representations

Page 28
B b 3 b 2 b1 b 0 Sign and magnitude +7 +6 +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 +0 - 0 - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 Values represented 1' s complement +7 +6 +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 +0 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 - 1 -0 2' s complement + + + + + + + + 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Figure 2.1. Binary, signed-integer representations.

Addition and Subtraction 2s Complement

4 +3 If carry-in to the high order bit = carry-out then ignore carry 7 0100 0011 0111 -4 + (-3) -7 1100 1101 11001

if carry-in differs from carry-out then overflow

0100

-4

1100

-3
1

1101
10001

+3
-1

0011
1111

Simpler addition scheme makes twos complement the most common choice for integer number systems within digital systems

2s-Complement Add and Subtract Operations

(a)

Page 31
(c)

0010 + 0011 0101 1011 + 1110 1001 1101 - 1001 0010 - 0100 0110 - 0011 1001 - 1011 1001 - 0001 0010 - 1101

( + 2) ( + 3) ( + 5) (- 5) (- 2) (- 7) (- 3) (- 7) ( + 2) ( + 4) ( + 6) ( + 3) ( - 7) (- 5) (- 7) ( + 1) ( + 2) ( - 3)

(b)

0100 + 1010 1110 0111 + 1101 0100 1101 + 0111 0100 0010 + 1100 1110 0110 + 1101 0011 1001 + 0101 1110 1001 + 1111 1000

(d)

( + 4) (- 6) (- 2) ( + 7) ( - 3) ( + 4)

(e)

( + 4)

(f)

( - 2)

(g)

( + 3)

(h)

( - 2)

(i)

( - 8)

(j)

0010 + 0011 0101

( + 5)

Figure 2.4. 2's-complement Add and Subtract operations.

Overflow - Add two positive numbers to get a negative number or two negative numbers to get a positive number
-1 +0
1111 1110 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 1000

-1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 -6 -7 -8 -7 - 2 = +7 -4 -5 -3 -2
1110 1101 1100 1011 1010 1001 1111

+0
0000
0001 0010

-2
-3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8
1101
1100 1011 1010 1001

+1
+2

0011
0100 0101 0110

+3 +4
+5

0111

+6

1000

0111

+6

+7 5 + 3 = -8

+7

Overflow Conditions
5 0111 0101 -7 1000 1001

3
-8

0011
1000

-2
7

1100
10111

Overflow
5 2 0000 0101 0010

Overflow
-3 -5 -8 1111 1101 1011 11000

7
No overflow

0111

No overflow

Overflow when carry-in to the high-order bit does not equal carry out

Sign Extension

Task: Given w-bit signed integer x Convert it to w+k-bit integer with same value Rule: Make k copies of sign bit: X = xw1 ,, xw1 , xw1 , xw2 ,, x0
X
k copies of MSB

Sign Extension Example

short int x = 15213; int ix = (int) x; short int y = -15213; int iy = (int) y;

x ix y iy

Decimal Hex 3B 15213 15213 00 00 C4 C4 -15213 -15213 FF FF C4

Binary 6D 00111011 92 00000000 00000000 00111011 93 11000100 93 11111111 11111111 11000100

01101101 01101101 10010011 10010011

Memory Locations, Addresses, and Operations

Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation

n bits

Memory consists of many millions of storage cells, each of which can store 1 bit. Data is usually accessed in n-bit groups. n is called word length.

first word

second word

i th word

last word

Figure 2.5. Memory words.

Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation

32-bit word length example

32 bits b31 b30 b1 b0

Sign bit: b31= 0 for positive numbers b31= 1 for negative numbers (a) A signed integer

8 bits

8 bits

8 bits

8 bits

ASCII character

ASCII character

ASCII character

ASCII character

(b) Four characters

Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation

To retrieve information from memory, either for one word or one byte (8-bit), addresses for each location are needed. A k-bit address memory has 2k memory locations, namely 0 2k-1, called memory space. 24-bit memory: 224 = 16,777,216 = 16M (1M=220) 32-bit memory: 232 = 4G (1G=230) 1K(kilo)=210 1T(tera)=240

Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation

It is impractical to assign distinct addresses to individual bit locations in the memory. The most practical assignment is to have successive addresses refer to successive byte locations in the memory byteaddressable memory. Byte locations have addresses 0, 1, 2, If word length is 32 bits, they successive words are located at addresses 0, 4, 8,

Big-Endian and Little-Endian Assignments

Big-Endian: lower byte addresses are used for the most significant bytes of the word Little-Endian: opposite ordering. lower byte addresses are used for the less significant bytes of the word
Word address 0 4 0 4 Byte address 1 5 2 6 3 7 0 4 3 7 Byte address 2 6 1 5 0 4

k k k k k k k k

k k

2 -4

2 -4

2 -3

2- 2

2 - 1

2 - 4

2- 1

2 - 2

2 -3

2 -4

(a) Big-endian assignment

(b) Little-endian assignment

Figure 2.7. Byte and word addressing.

Memory Location, Addresses, and Operation

Address ordering of bytes Word alignment

Words are said to be aligned in memory if they begin at a byte addr. that is a multiple of the num of bytes in a word.

16-bit word: word addresses: 0, 2, 4,. 32-bit word: word addresses: 0, 4, 8,. 64-bit word: word addresses: 0, 8,16,.

Access numbers, characters, and character strings

Memory Operation

Load (or Read or Fetch)

Copy the content. The memory content doesnt change. Address Load Registers can be used

Store (or Write)

Overwrite the content in memory Address and Data Store Registers can be used

Instruction and Instruction Sequencing

Must-Perform Operations

Data transfers between the memory and the processor registers Arithmetic and logic operations on data Program sequencing and control I/O transfers

Register Transfer Notation

Identify a location by a symbolic name standing for its hardware binary address (LOC, R0,) Contents of a location are denoted by placing square brackets around the name of the location (R1[LOC], R3 [R1]+[R2]) Register Transfer Notation (RTN)

Assembly Language Notation

Represent machine instructions and programs. Move LOC, R1 = R1[LOC] Add R1, R2, R3 = R3 [R1]+[R2]

CPU Organization

Single Accumulator

Result usually goes to the Accumulator Accumulator has to be saved to memory quite often
Registers hold operands thus reduce memory traffic Register bookkeeping Operands and result are always in the stack

General Register

Stack

Instruction Formats

Three-Address Instructions

ADD ADD

R1, R2, R3 R1, R2

R1 R2 + R3 R1 R1 + R2

Two-Address Instructions

One-Address Instructions

ADD
ADD

AC AC + M[AR]
TOS TOS + (TOS 1)

Zero-Address Instructions

RISC Instructions

Lots of registers. Memory is restricted to Load & Store

Opcode Operand(s) or Address(es)

Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B) * (C+D) Three-Address
1. 2. 3.

ADD ADD MUL

R1, A, B R2, C, D X, R1, R2

; R1 M[A] + M[B] ; R2 M[C] + M[D] ; M[X] R1 * R2

Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B) * (C+D) Two-Address
1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.

MOV ADD MOV ADD MUL MOV

R1, A R1, B R2, C R2, D R1, R2 X, R1

; R1 M[A] ; R1 R1 + M[B] ; R2 M[C] ; R2 R2 + M[D] ; R1 R1 * R2 ; M[X] R1

Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B) * (C+D) One-Address
1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.
7.

LOAD A ADD B STORE T LOAD C ADD D MUL T STORE X

; AC M[A] ; AC AC + M[B] ; M[T] AC ; AC M[C] ; AC AC + M[D] ; AC AC * M[T] ; M[X] AC

Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B) * (C+D) Zero-Address
1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.
7.

8.

PUSH A PUSH B ADD PUSH C PUSH D ADD MUL (C+D)*(A+B) POP X

; TOS A ; TOS B ; TOS (A + B) ; TOS C ; TOS D ; TOS (C + D) ; TOS

; M[X] TOS

Instruction Formats
Example: Evaluate (A+B) * (C+D) RISC
1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.
7. 8.

LOAD R1, A LOAD R2, B LOAD R3, C LOAD R4, D ADD R1, R1, R2 ADD R3, R3, R4 MUL R1, R1, R3 STORE X, R1

; R1 M[A] ; R2 M[B] ; R3 M[C] ; R4 M[D] ; R1 R1 + R2 ; R3 R3 + R4 ; R1 R1 * R3 ; M[X] R1

Using Registers

Registers are faster Shorter instructions

The number of registers is smaller (e.g. 32 registers need 5 bits)

Potential speedup Minimize the frequency with which data is moved back and forth between the memory and processor registers.

Instruction Execution and Straight-Line Sequencing

Address Begin execution here Contents Move A,R0 Add B,R0

i i+4 i+8

3-instruction program segment

Move R0,C

Assumptions: - One memory operand per instruction - 32-bit word length - Memory is byte addressable - Full memory address can be directly specified in a single-word instruction Two-phase procedure -Instruction fetch -Instruction execute Page 43

Data for the program

Figure 2.8. A program for C [A] + [B].

Move NUM1,R0
Add Add NUM2,R0 NUM3,R0

Branching

i+4 i+8

i + 4n - 4 i + 4n Add NUMn,R0

Move R0,SUM

SUM NUM1 NUM2

NUMn

Figure 2.9. A straight-line program for adding n numbers.

Move Clear

N,R1 R0

Branching
Program loop

LOOP
Determine address of "Next" number and add "Next" number to R0 Decrement R1

Branch target
Conditional branch

Branch>0 Move

LOOP R0,SUM

SUM N NUM1 n

Figure 2.10. Using a loop to add n numbers.

NUM2

NUM n

Condition Codes

Condition code flags Condition code register / status register N (negative) Z (zero) V (overflow) C (carry) Different instructions affect different flags

Conditional Branch Instructions

Example:

A:

11110000

A: 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 B: 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

+(B): 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 11011100 C=1 S=1 V=0 Z=0

Status Bits
Cn-1 Cn A B

ALU
F

C
Fn-1

Zero Check

Addressing Modes

Generating Memory Addresses

How to specify the address of branch target? Can we give the memory operand address directly in a single Add instruction in the loop? Use a register to hold the address of NUM1; then increment by 4 on each pass through the loop.

Addressing Modes

Implied

Opcode Mode

...

AC is implied in ADD M[AR] in One-Address instr. TOS is implied in ADD in Zero-Address instr.
The use of a constant in MOV R1, 5, i.e. R1 5 Indicate which register holds the operand

Immediate

Register

Addressing Modes

Register Indirect

Indicate the register that holds the number of the register that holds the operand R1

MOV

R1, (R2)
R2 = 3 R3 = 5

Autoincrement / Autodecrement
Access & update in 1 instr.

Direct Address

Use the given address to access a memory location

Addressing Modes

Indirect Address

Indicate the memory location that holds the address of the memory location that holds the data
AR = 101

100 101 102 103 104

0 1 0 4

1 1 0 A

Addressing Modes

Relative Address

EA = PC + Relative Addr
PC = 2
+

0 1 2

AR = 100

Could be Positive or Negative (2s Complement)

100 101 102 103 104

1 1 0 A

Addressing Modes

Indexed

EA = Index Register + Relative Addr

Useful with Autoincrement or Autodecrement

XR = 2
+

AR = 100
Could be Positive or Negative (2s Complement)

100 101 102 103 104

1 1 0 A

Addressing Modes

Base Register

EA = Base Register + Relative Addr

Could be Positive or Negative (2s Complement)

AR = 2
+

BR = 100

Usually points to the beginning of an array

100 101 102 103 104

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 5

5 2 A 7 9

Addressing Modes
Name

Assembler syntax #Value Ri

LOC (R i ) (LOC) X(R i )

Addressingfunction Op erand = Value EA = Ri

EA = LOC EA = [Ri ] EA = [LOC] EA = [Ri ] + X

The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are referred to as addressing modes.

Immediate Register
Absolute (Direct) Indirect Index

Base with index Base with index and offset

Relative Autoincrement Autodecrement

(R i ,Rj ) X(R i ,Rj )

X(PC) (R i )+ (R i )

EA = [Ri ] + [Rj ] EA = [Ri ] + [Rj ] + X

EA = [PC] + X EA = [Ri ] ; Increment R i Decrement R i ; EA = [Ri ]

Indexing and Arrays

Index mode the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant value to the contents of a register. Index register X(Ri): EA = X + [Ri] The constant X may be given either as an explicit number or as a symbolic name representing a numerical value. If X is shorter than a word, sign-extension is needed.

Indexing and Arrays

In general, the Index mode facilitates access to an operand whose location is defined relative to a reference point within the data structure in which the operand appears. Several variations: (Ri, Rj): EA = [Ri] + [Rj] X(Ri, Rj): EA = X + [Ri] + [Rj]

Relative Addressing

Relative mode the effective address is determined by the Index mode using the program counter in place of the general-purpose register. X(PC) note that X is a signed number Branch>0 LOOP This location is computed by specifying it as an offset from the current value of PC. Branch target may be either before or after the branch instruction, the offset is given as a singed num.

Additional Modes

Autoincrement mode the effective address of the operand is the contents of a register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand, the contents of this register are automatically incremented to point to the next item in a list. (Ri)+. The increment is 1 for byte-sized operands, 2 for 16-bit operands, and 4 for 32-bit operands. Autodecrement mode: -(Ri) decrement first
Move Move Clear Add Decrement Branch>0 Move N,R1 #NUM1,R2 R0 (R2)+,R0 R1 LOOP R0,SUM Initialization

LOOP

Figure 2.16. The Autoincrement addressing mode used in the program of Figure 2.12.

Assembly Language

Types of Instructions

Data Transfer Instructions

Name Mnemonic Load LD Store ST Move MOV Exchange XCH Input IN Output OUT Push PUSH Pop POP
Data value is not modified

Data Transfer Instructions

Mode
Direct address Indirect address Relative address Immediate operand Index addressing Register

Assembly
LD ADR LD @ADR LD $ADR LD #NBR LD ADR(X) LD R1

Register Transfer
AC M[ADR] AC M[M[ADR]] AC M[PC+ADR] AC NBR AC M[ADR+XR] AC R1

Register indirect
Autoincrement

LD (R1)
LD (R1)+

AC M[R1]
AC M[R1], R1 R1+1

Data Manipulation Instructions

Name Mnemonic Increment INC Decrement DEC Add ADD Subtract SUB Multiply MUL Divide DIV Add with carry ADDC Name Mnemonic Subtract with borrow SUBB Clear CLR Negate NEG Complement COM Name Mnemonic AND AND Logical shift right SHR OR OR Logical shift left SHL Exclusive-OR XOR Arithmetic shift right SHRA Clear carry CLRC Arithmetic shift left SHLA Set carry SETC Rotate right ROR Complement carry COMC Rotate left ROL Enable interrupt EI Rotate right through carry RORC Disable interrupt DI Rotate left through carry ROLC

Arithmetic Logical & Bit Manipulation Shift

Program Control Instructions

Name Branch Jump Skip Mnemonic BR JMP SKP
Subtract A B but dont store the result

Call
Return Compare (Subtract) Test (AND)

CALL
RET CMP TST

10110001 00001000 Mask 00000000

Conditional Branch Instructions

Mnemonic Branch Condition Tested Condition

BZ
BNZ BC BNC BP BM BV BNV

Branch if zero
Branch if not zero Branch if carry Branch if no carry Branch if plus Branch if minus Branch if overflow Branch if no overflow

Z=1
Z=0 C=1 C=0 S=0 S=1 V=1 V=0

Basic Input/Output Operations

I/O

The data on which the instructions operate are not necessarily already stored in memory. Data need to be transferred between processor and outside world (disk, keyboard, etc.) I/O operations are essential, the way they are performed can have a significant effect on the performance of the computer.

Program-Controlled I/O Example

Read in character input from a keyboard and produce character output on a display screen.
Rate of data transfer (keyboard, display, processor) Difference in speed between processor and I/O device creates the need for mechanisms to synchronize the transfer of data. A solution: on output, the processor sends the first character and then waits for a signal from the display that the character has been received. It then sends the second character. Input is sent from the keyboard in a similar way.

SIN Key board

SOUT Display

Program-Controlled I/O Example

Figure 2.19 Bus connection for processor , keyboard, and display .

- Registers - Flags - Device interface

Program-Controlled I/O Example

Machine instructions that can check the state of the status flags and transfer data:
READWAIT Branch to READWAIT if SIN = 0 Input from DATAIN to R1 WRITEWAIT Branch to WRITEWAIT if SOUT = 0 Output from R1 to DATAOUT

Program-Controlled I/O Example

Memory-Mapped I/O some memory address values are used to refer to peripheral device buffer registers. No special instructions are needed. Also use device status registers.
READWAIT Testbit #3, INSTATUS Branch=0 READWAIT MoveByte DATAIN, R1

Program-Controlled I/O Example

Assumption the initial state of SIN is 0 and the initial state of SOUT is 1. Any drawback of this mechanism in terms of efficiency?

Two wait loopsprocessor execution time is wasted Interrupt

Alternate solution?

Stacks

Home Work

For each Addressing modes mentioned before, state one example for each addressing mode stating the specific benefit for using such addressing mode for such an application.

Stack Organization
Current Top of Stack TOS

LIFO
Last In First Out

SP FULL EMPTY

Stack Bottom

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

2 5 0 2 1

3 5 8 5 5

Stack

Stack Organization
Current Top of Stack TOS
1 6 9 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

PUSH

SP SP 1 M[SP] DR If (SP = 0) then (FULL 1) EMPTY 0

SP FULL EMPTY

Stack Bottom

1 0 0 0 0 0

6 1 0 0 0 0

9 2 5 0 2 1

0 3 5 8 5 5

Stack

Stack Organization

POP

Current Top of Stack TOS

DR M[SP] SP SP + 1 If (SP = 11) then (EMPTY 1) FULL 0

SP FULL EMPTY

Stack Bottom

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 0 0 0 0 0

6 1 0 0 0 0

9 2 5 0 2 1

0 3 5 8 5 5

Stack

Stack Organization

Memory Stack

PUSH

PC

SP SP 1 M[SP] DR

0 1 2

POP

AR

DR M[SP] SP SP + 1
SP

100 101 102

200 201 202

Reverse Polish Notation

Infix Notation
A+B

Prefix or Polish Notation

+AB

Postfix or Reverse Polish Notation (RPN)

AB+
(2) (4) * (3) (3) * + A*B+C*D
RPN

AB*CD*+

(8) (3) (3) * + (8) (9) + 17

Reverse Polish Notation

Example
(A + B) * [C * (D + E) + F]
(A B +) (D E +) C * F + *

Reverse Polish Notation

Stack Operation
(3) (4) * (5) (6) * +
PUSH PUSH MULT PUSH PUSH MULT ADD 5 6 3 4

6 30 4 5

3 42 12

Additional Instructions

Logical Shifts

Logical shift shifting left (LShiftL) and shifting right (LShiftR)

C R0 0 before: 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

. . .
0 1

0 1

1 0

1 0 #2,R0

after:

. . .

(a) Logical shift left

LShiftL

R0

before: after:

0 0

1 0

1 0

1 1

0 1

. . .
1 0

1 0

0 1

. . .

(b) Logical shift ight r

LShiftR #2,R0

Arithmetic Shifts

R0

before: after:

1 1

0 1

0 1

1 0

1 0

. . .
1 1

0 0

0 1

. . .

(c) Arithmetic shift r ight

AShiftR #2,R0

R0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

Rotate

before: after:

0 1

. . .
0

1 1 0 1 #2,R0

. . .

1 1

(a) Rotate left without carr y

RotateL

C before: after: 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

R0

. . .
0

1 1 0 0

. . .

1 1

(b) Rotate left with carr y

RotateLC #2,R0

R0 before: after: 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

C 0 1 1 0 0 1

. . .
0

1 1

. . .

(c) Rotate ight r without carr y

RotateR #2,R0

R0 before: after: 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

C 0 1 1 0 0 1

. . .
0

1 1

. . .

(d) Rotate ight r with carr y

RotateRC #2,R0

Figure 2.32. Rotate instructions.

Multiplication and Division

Not very popular (especially division) Multiply Ri, Rj Rj [Ri] [Rj] 2n-bit product case: high-order half in R(j+1) Divide Ri, Rj Rj [Ri] / [Rj]
Quotient is in Rj, remainder may be placed in R(j+1)

Encoding of Machine Instructions

Encoding of Machine Instructions

Assembly language program needs to be converted into machine instructions. (ADD = 0100 in ARM instruction set) In the previous section, an assumption was made that all instructions are one word in length. OP code: the type of operation to be performed and the type of operands used may be specified using an encoded binary pattern Suppose 32-bit word length, 8-bit OP code (how many instructions can we have?), 16 registers in total (how many bits?), 3-bit addressing mode indicator. 8 7 7 10 Add R1, R2 Move 24(R0), R5 OP code Source Dest Other info LshiftR #2, R0 Move #$3A, R1 (a) One-word instruction Branch>0 LOOP

Encoding of Machine Instructions

What happens if we want to specify a memory operand using the Absolute addressing mode? Move R2, LOC 14-bit for LOC insufficient Solution use two words
OP code Source Dest Other info

Memory address/Immediate operand

(b) Two-word instruction

Encoding of Machine Instructions

Then what if an instruction in which two operands can be specified using the Absolute addressing mode? Move LOC1, LOC2 Solution use two additional words This approach results in instructions of variable length. Complex instructions can be implemented, closely resembling operations in high-level programming languages Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

Encoding of Machine Instructions

If we insist that all instructions must fit into a single 32-bit word, it is not possible to provide a 32-bit address or a 32-bit immediate operand within the instruction. It is still possible to define a highly functional instruction set, which makes extensive use of the processor registers. Add R1, R2 ----- yes Add LOC, R2 ----- no Add (R3), R2 ----- yes