Understanding Operating Systems Sixth Edition
Chapter 7 Device Management
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe: Features of dedicated, shared, and virtual devices Differences between sequential and direct access media Concepts of blocking and buffering and how they improve I/O performance Roles of seek time, search time, and transfer time in calculating access time
Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition
Learning Objectives (cont'd.)
Differences in access times in several types of devices Critical components of the input/output subsystem, and how they interact Strengths and weaknesses of common seek strategies, including FCFS, SSTF, SCAN/LOOK, C-SCAN/C-LOOK, and how they compare Different levels of RAID and what sets each apart from the others
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Types of Devices
Dedicated Devices
Device assigned to one job at a time
For entire time job is active (or until released) Example: tape drives, printers, and plotters
Disadvantage
Inefficient if device is not used 100% Allocated for duration of jobs execution
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Types of Devices (cont'd.)
Shared Devices
Device assigned to several processes
Example: direct access storage device (DASD)
Processes share DASD simultaneously Requests interleaved
Device manager supervision
Controls interleaving
Predetermined policies determine conflict resolution
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Types of Devices (cont'd.)
Virtual Devices
Dedicated and shared device combination Dedicated devices transformed into shared devices
Example: printer
Converted by spooling program
Spooling
Speeds up slow dedicated I/O devices Example: universal serial bus (USB) controller
Interface between operating system, device drivers, applications, and devices attached via USB host
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Types of Devices (cont'd.)
Storage media
Two groups
Sequential access media
Records stored sequentially
Direct access storage devices (DASD)
Records stored sequentially Records stored using direct access files
Vast differences
Speed and sharability
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Sequential Access Storage Media
Magnetic tape
Early computer systems: routine secondary storage Todays use: routine archiving and data backup Records stored serially
Record length determined by application program Record identified by position on tape Record access
Tape mount Fast-forwarded to record
Time-consuming process
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Sequential Access Storage Media (cont'd.)
Tape density: characters recorded per inch
Depends upon storage method (individual or blocked)
Tape reading/writing mechanics
Tape moves under read/write head when needed
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Sequential Access Storage Media (cont'd.)
Interrecord gap (IRG)
inch gap inserted between each record Same size regardless of records it separates
Blocking: group records into blocks Transfer rate: (tape density) x (transport speed) Interblock gap (IBG)
inch gap inserted between each block More efficient than individual records and IRG
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Sequential Access Storage Media (cont'd.)
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Sequential Access Storage Media (cont'd.)
Blocking advantages
Fewer I/O operations needed Less wasted tape
Blocking disadvantages
Overhead and software routines needed for blocking, deblocking, and record keeping Buffer space wasted
When only one logical record needed
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Sequential Access Storage Media (cont'd.)
Advantages
Low cost, compact storage capabilities, good for magnetic disk backup and long-term archival
Disadvantages
Access time
Poor for routine secondary storage
Poor for interactive applications
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Direct Access Storage Devices
Directly read or write to specific disk area
Random access storage devices
Four categories
Magnetic disks Optical discs Flash memory Magneto-optical disks
Access time variance
Not as wide as magnetic tape Record location directly affects access time
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Fixed-Head Magnetic Disk Storage
Looks like a large CD or DVD
Covered with magnetic film Formatted
Both sides (usually) in concentric circles called tracks
Data recorded serially on each track
Fixed read/write head positioned over data
Advantages
Fast (more so than movable head)
Disadvantages
High cost and reduced storage
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Fixed-Head Magnetic Disk Storage (cont'd.)
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Movable-Head Magnetic Disk Storage
One read/write head floats over disk surface
Example: computer hard drive Disks
Single platter Part of disk pack (stack of platters)
Disk pack platter
Two recording surfaces
Exception: top and bottom platters
Surface formatted with concentric tracks Track number varies
1000+ (high-capacity disk)
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Movable-Head Magnetic Disk Storage (cont'd.)
Disk pack platter (cont'd.)
Track surface number
Track zero: outermost concentric circle on each surface Center: contains highest-numbered track
Arm moves over all heads in unison
Slower: fill disk pack surface-by-surface Faster: fill disk pack track-by-track
Virtual cylinder: fill track zero
Record access system requirements
Cylinder number, surface number, record number
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Movable-Head Magnetic Disk Storage (cont'd.)
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Optical Disc Storage
Design difference
Magnetic disk
Concentric tracks of sectors Spins at constant angular velocity (CAV) Wastes storage space but fast data retrieval
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Optical Disc Storage (cont'd.)
Design features
Optical disc
Single spiralling track of same-sized sectors running from center to disc rim Spins at constant linear velocity (CLV) More sectors and more disc data
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Optical Disc Storage (cont'd.)
Two important performance measures
Sustained data-transfer rate
Speed to read massive data amounts from disc Measured in megabytes per second (Mbps) Crucial for applications requiring sequential access
Average access time
Average time to move head to specific disc location Expressed in milliseconds (ms)
Third feature
Cache size (hardware)
Buffer to transfer data blocks from disc
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CD and DVD Technology
CD
Data recorded as zeros and ones
Pits: indentations Lands: flat areas
Reads with low-power laser
Light strikes land and reflects to photodetector Pit is scattered and absorbed Photodetector converts light intensity into digital signal
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CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
CD-Recordable technology (CD-R)
Requires expensive disk controller Records data using write-once technique Data cannot be erased or modified Disk
Contains several layers Gold reflective layer and dye layer Records with high-power laser Permanent marks on dye layer CD cannot be erased after data recorded
Data read on standard CD drive (low-power beam)
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CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
CD-Rewritable technology (CD-RW)
Data written, changed, erased Uses phase change technology
Amorphous and crystalline phase states
Record data: beam heats up disc
State changes from crystalline to amorphous
Erase data: low-energy beam to heat up pits
Loosens alloy to return to original crystalline state
Drives read standard CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW discs Drives store large quantities of data, sound, graphics, multimedia
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CD and DVD Technology (cont'd.)
DVD technology (Digital Versatile Disc) CD-ROM comparison
Similar in design, shape, size Differs in data capacity
Dual-layer, single-sided DVD holds 13 CDs Single-layer, single-sided DVD holds 8.6 GB (MPEG video compression)
Differs in laser wavelength
Uses red laser (smaller pits, tighter spiral)
DVDs cannot be read by CD or CD-ROM drives DVD-R and DVD-RW provide rewritable flexibility
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Blu-Ray Disc Technology
Same physical size as DVD/CD Smaller pits More tightly wound tracks Use of blue-violet laser allows multiple layers 50GB-500GB 432 Mbps Formats: BD-ROM, BD-R, BD-RE
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Flash Memory Storage
Electronically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEP)
Nonvolatile and removable Emulates random access
Difference: data stored securely (even if removed)
Data stored on microchip card or key
Compact flash, smart cards, memory sticks Often connected through USB port
Write data: electric charge sent through floating gate Erase data: strong electrical field (flash) applied
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Magnetic Disk Drive Access Times
File access time factors
Seek time (slowest)
Time to position read/write head on track Does not apply to fixed read/write head devices
Search time
Rotational delay Time to rotate DASD Rotate until desired record under read/write head
Transfer time (fastest)
Time to transfer data Secondary storage to main memory transfer
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Fixed-Head Devices
Record access requires two items
Track number and record number
Access time = search time + transfer time Total access time
Rotational speed dependent
DASDs rotate continuously
Three basic positions for requested record
In relation to read/write head position
DASD has little access variance
Good candidates: low activity files, random access
Blocking used to minimize access time
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Fixed-Head Devices (cont'd.)
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Movable-Head Devices
Record access requires three items
Seek time + search time + transfer time
Search time and transfer time calculation
Same as fixed-head DASD
Blocking is a good way to minimize access time
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Components of the I/O Subsystem
I/O Channel
Programmable units
Positioned between CPU and control unit
Synchronizes device speeds
CPU (fast) with I/O device (slow)
Manages concurrent processing
CPU and I/O device requests
Allows overlap
CPU and I/O operations
Channels: expensive because so often shared
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Components of the I/O Subsystem (cont'd.)
I/O channel programs
Specifies action performed by devices Controls data transmission
Between main memory and control units
I/O control unit: receives and interprets signal Disk controller (disk drive interface)
Links disk drive and system bus
Entire path must be available when I/O command initiated I/O subsystem configuration
Multiple paths increase flexibility and reliability
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Components of the I/O Subsystem (cont'd.)
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Components of the I/O Subsystem (cont'd.)
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Communication Among Devices
Problems to resolve
Know which components are busy/free
Solved by structuring interaction between units
Accommodate requests during heavy I/O traffic
Handled by buffering records and queuing requests
Accommodate speed disparity between CPU and I/O devices
Handled by buffering records and queuing requests
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Communication Among Devices (cont'd.)
I/O subsystem units finish independently of others CPU processes data while I/O performed Success requires device completion knowledge
Hardware flag tested by CPU
Channel status word (CSW) contains flag Three bits in flag represent I/O system component (channel, control unit, device) Changes zero to one (free to busy)
Flag tested using polling and interrupts
Interrupts are more efficient way to test flag
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Communication Among Devices (cont'd.)
Direct memory access (DMA)
Allows control unit main memory access directly Transfers data without the intervention of CPU Used for high-speed devices (disk)
Buffers
Temporary storage areas in main memory, channels, control units Improves data movement synchronization
Between relatively slow I/O devices and very fast CPU
Double buffering: processing of record by CPU while another is read or written by channel
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Communication Among Devices (cont'd.)
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Management of I/O Requests
I/O traffic controller
Watches status of devices, control units, channels Three main tasks
Determine if path available If more than one path available, determine which one to select If paths all busy, determine when one is available
Maintain database containing unit status and connections
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Management of I/O Requests (cont'd.)
I/O scheduler
Same job as process scheduler (Chapter 4) Allocates devices, control units, channels If requests greater than available paths
Decides which request to satisfy first: based on different criteria
In many systems
I/O requests not preempted
For some systems
Allow preemption with I/O request subdivided Allow preferential treatment for high-priority requests
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Management of I/O Requests (cont'd.)
I/O device handler
Performs actual data transfer
Processes device interrupts Handles error conditions Provides detailed scheduling algorithms
Device dependent Each I/O device type has device handler algorithm
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Management of I/O Requests (cont'd.)
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Device Handler Seek Strategies
Predetermined device handler
Determines device processing order Goal: minimize seek time
Types
First-come, first-served (FCFS), shortest seek time first (SSTF), SCAN (including LOOK, N-Step SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK)
Scheduling algorithm goals
Minimize arm movement Minimize mean response time Minimize variance in response time
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
FCFS
On average: does not meet three seek strategy goals Disadvantage: extreme arm movement
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)
Request with track closest to one being served Minimizes overall seek time Postpones traveling to out of way tracks
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
SCAN
Directional bit
Indicates if arm moving toward/away from disk center
Algorithm moves arm methodically
From outer to inner track, services every request in its path If reaches innermost track, reverses direction and moves toward outer tracks Services every request in its path
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
LOOK
Arm does not go to either edge
Unless requests exist
Eliminates indefinite postponement
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
N-Step SCAN
Holds all requests until arm starts on way back
New requests grouped together for next sweep
C-SCAN (Circular SCAN)
Arm picks up requests on path during inward sweep Provides more uniform wait time
C-LOOK
Inward sweep stops at last high-numbered track request No last track access unless required
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Device Handler Seek Strategies (cont'd.)
Best strategy
FCFS best with light loads
Service time unacceptably long under high loads
SSTF best with moderate loads
Localization problem under heavy loads
SCAN best with light to moderate loads
Eliminates indefinite postponement
Throughput and mean service times SSTF similarities
C-SCAN best with moderate to heavy loads
Very small service time variances
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Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering
Rotational ordering
Optimizes search times
Orders requests once read/write heads positioned
Read/write head movement time
Hardware dependent
Reduces time wasted
Due to rotational delay Request arrangement
First sector requested on second track is next number higher than one just served
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Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering (cont'd.)
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Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering (cont'd.)
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Search Strategies: Rotational Ordering (cont'd.)
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RAID
Physical disk drive set viewed as single logical unit
Preferable over few large-capacity disk drives
Improved I/O performance Improved data recovery
Disk failure event
Introduces redundancy
Helps with hardware failure recovery
Significant factors in RAID level selection
Cost, speed, systems applications
Increases hardware costs
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RAID (cont'd.)
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RAID (cont'd.)
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Level Zero
Uses data striping (not considered true RAID)
No parity and error corrections No error correction/redundancy/recovery
Benefits
Devices appear as one logical unit Best for large data quantity non-critical data
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Level One
Uses data striping (considered true RAID)
Mirrored configuration (backup)
Duplicate set of all data (expensive)
Provides redundancy and improved reliability
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Level Two
Uses small stripes (considered true RAID) Hamming code: error detection and correction Expensive and complex
Size of strip determines number of array disks
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Level Three
Modification of Level 2
Requires one disk for redundancy
One parity bit for each strip
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Level Four
Same strip scheme as Levels 0 and 1
Computes parity for each strip Stores parities in corresponding strip
Has designated parity disk
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Level Five
Modification of Level 4 Distributes parity strips across disks
Avoids Level 4 bottleneck
Disadvantage
Complicated to regenerate data from failed device
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Level Six
Provides extra degree of error protection/correction
Two different parity calculations (double parity)
Same as level four/five and independent algorithm
Parities stored on separate disk across array
Stored in corresponding data strip
Advantage: data restoration even if two disks fail
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Nested RAID Levels
Combines multiple RAID levels (complex)
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Nested RAID Levels (cont'd.)
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Summary
Device Manager
Manages every system device effectively as possible
Devices
Vary in speed and sharability degrees Direct access and sequential access
Magnetic media: one or many read/write heads
Heads in a fixed position (optimum speed) Move across surface (optimum storage space)
Optical media: disk speed adjusted
Data recorded/retrieved correctly
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Summary (cont'd.)
Flash memory: device manager tracks USB devices
Assures data sent/received correctly
I/O subsystem success dependence
Communication linking channels, control units, devices
SCAN: eliminates indefinite postponement problem
Best for light to moderate loads
C-SCAN: very small service time variance
Best for moderate to heavy loads
RAID: redundancy helps hardware failure recover
Consider cost, speed, applications
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Summary (cont'd.)
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