Control systems

Unit-2
Time Response Analysis
Ms. P. Geethanjali
Asst. Professor (Sr)
SELECT

Outline

Introduction
Test Input Signals
Performance of a second-order system
Effects of a Third Pole and a Zero on the SecondOrder System Response
Estimation of the Damping Ratio
The s-plane Root Location and the Transient
Response
Error Co-efficients
Stability
Root locus
Control Systems

Review: Complex variable

s j ,

1, j 2 1

Euler's Equation
A cos j sin
dA
sin j cos j 2 sin j cos jA
d
dA
Hence,
jd
A
Integrating both sides, ln A j c
If we let 0, then c 0, that is, taking exponential
A e j
cos j sin

Review: Complex function

Complex function
G ( s ) Re G ( s ) j Im G ( s )
Definition : Analytic Function
G(s) is said to be analytic if its derivative exists at s and at each point in the neighborhood of s.
Cauchy Theorm : If G(s) is anlytic inside and on a closed simple contour C, then

Definition : Singularit y

G ( s ) ds 0

If G(s) is NOT analytic C

at s, but is analytic at some point in every neighborhood of s, then
s is said to be a singularity of G.

Laplace Transform
Definition

where

Note:

s j

1. The Laplace transform is one-to-one mapping.

(One element in the time domain corresponds to only one element in the
complex domain.)
2. One-sided Laplace transform
(All information contained in f(t) prior to t=0 is ignored or considered to be
zero.)

Inverse Laplace Transform

Definition

Laplace transform table

Example: Laplace transform

Ae at

x1

Definition: A function f(x) is said to be linear if for every x1 and x2

f (1x1 2 x2 ) 1 f ( x1 ) 2 f ( x2 ), 1 , 2 R.

Question: The Laplace transform is a linear operator?

Note: function=operator=transformation=map=mapping

Laplace transform of a derivative

st
st
f (t ) e dt f (t )e
dt

f ( 0)

d st
f (t ) e dt
dt

f (t ) ( s ) e st dt

f (t )e st dt f (0)

sF ( s ) f (0)

General form of the standard test

signals

r(t) = tn
R(s) = n!/sn+1

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Test Input Signal

Since the actual input signal of the system is
usually unknown, a standard test input
signal is normally chosen. Commonly used
test signals include step input, ramp input,
and the parabolic input.

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Test signals r(t) = A tn

n=0
r(t) = A
R(s) = A/s

n=1
r(t) = At
R(s) = A/s2

Control Systems

n=2
r(t) = At2
R(s) = 2A/s3

12

Test Signal Inputs

Test Signal
Step
position
Ramp
velocity
Parabolic
acceleration

r(t)

R(s)

r(t) = A, t > 0
R(s) = A/s
= 0, t < 0
r(t) = At, t > 0 R(s) = A/s2
= 0, t < 0
r(t) = At2, t > 0 R(s) = 2A/s3
= 0, t < 0
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Steady-state error

Is a difference between input and the

output for a prescribed test input as

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Application to stable systems

Unstable systems represent loss of
control in the steady state and are not
acceptable for use at all.

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Steady-state error:
a) step input, b) ramp input

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Time response of systems

c(t) = ct(t) + css(t)
The time response of a control system is divided
into two parts:
ct(t) - transient response
css(t) - steady state response

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Transient response
All real control systems exhibit transient
phenomena to some extend before steady
state is reached.
lim ct(t) = 0

for t

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Steady-state response
The response that exists for a long time
following any input signal initiation.

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Poles and zeros of a first order system

Css(t)

Ct(t
) Control Systems

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Poles and zeros

1.

A pole of the input function generates the form of the

forced response ( that is the pole at the origin generated
a step function at the output).
2. A pole of the transfer function generate the form of the
exponential response
3. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the
transit and steady state responses ( see A, B in partial
fraction extension)

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Effect of a real-axis pole upon transient

response

A pole on the real axis generate an exponential response

of the form Exp[-t] where - is the pole location on real axis.
The farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis,
the faster the exponential transit response will decay to zero.
Control Systems

22

Evaluating response using poles

K1 K 2
K3
K4
C(s)

s s 2 s 4 s5
Css(t)
2t

c(t) K1 K 2e

4 t

K 3e

Control Systems

Ct(t
)

5t

K4e

23

First order system

a
C(s) R(s) G(s)
s(s a)
Control Systems

at

c(t) 1 e

24

First-order system response to a unit step

Transient response specification:

1. Time-constant, 1/a
2. Rise time, Tr
3. Settling time, Ts
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Transient response specification for

a first-order system
1.

Time-constant, 1/a
Can be described as the time for (1 - Exp[- a t])
to rise to 63 % of initial value.

1.

Rise time, Tr = 2.2/a

The time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9
of its final value.

3.

Settling time, Ts = 4/a

The time for response to reach, and stay within, 2%
of its final value
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Transfer function via laboratory testing

K
G(s)
(s a)
K
K
K
a
C(s)
a
s(s a)
s
(s a)

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Identify K and a from testing

The time for amplitude to reach 63% of its final value:

63 x 0.72 = 0.45, or about 0.13 sec , a = 1/0.13 = 7.7

From equation, we see that the forced response reaches

a steady-state value of K/a =0.72 .
K= 0.72 x 7.7= 5.54
G(s) = 5.54/(s+7.7) .

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Exercise
A system has a transfer function
G(s)= 50/(s+50).
Find the transit response specifications
such as Tc, Tr, Ts.

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Steady-state response
If the steady-state response of the output does not
agree with the steady-state of the input exactly, the
system is said to have a steady-state error.
It is a measure of system accuracy when a specific type
of input is applied to a control system.

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Steady-state error of first order

system
T(s) = 9/(s + 10)

Y(s) = 9/s(s+10)
y(t) = 0.9(1- e-10t)
y(inf) = 0.9
E(s) = R(s) - Y(s)
ess = lim s 0 s E(s) = 0.1

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R(s)
E(s)
1 K

R(s)
E(s)
K
1
s

1
e(t)
1 K

e(t) eK t
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Performance of a second-order system

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Numerical example of the secondorder system

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Overdamped

9
9
C(s) 2

s(s 9s 9) s(s 7.854)(s 1.146)

c(t) 1 0.171e7.854t 1.17e1.146t

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Underdamped

9
9
C(s) 2

s(s 2s 9) s(s 1 j 8)(s 1 j 8)

8
c(t) 1 e (cos 8t
sin 8t)
8
t

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8
c(t) 1 e (cos 8t
sin 8t)
8
t

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Undamped

9
C(s) 2
s(s 9)

c(t) 1cos3t
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Critically damped

9
9
C(s) 2

s(s 6s 9) s(s 3) 2
3t

c(t) 1 3te

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3t

39

Step response for second order system

damping cases

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Control Systems
fig_04_11

41

Summary
Overdamped
Poles: Two real at - 1, - 2
Underdamped
Poles: Two complex at - d + jd, - d - jd
Undamped
Poles: Two imaginary at + j1, - j1
Critically damped
Poles: Two real at - 1,

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Performance of a second-order system

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Response to unit step input

Y(s)

G(s)
R(s)
1 G(s)

n 2
Y ( s) 2
R( s )
2
s 2 n s n

n 2
Y ( s)
2
s( s 2 2 n s n )

1 2

y (t ) 1

e nt sin( n t )
Control Systems

cos 1
44

 Natural frequency n - the frequency of natural

oscillation that would occur for two complex
poles if the damping were equal to zero
Damping ratio - a measure of damping for
second-order characteristic equation

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Characteristic equation
s 2 n s n 0
2

s1 n n 2 1
s2 n n 2 1

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Finding n and for a second-order

system
36
G(s) 2
s 4.2s 36
n
G(s) 2
2
s 2 n s n
2

n 2 36
2 n 4.2
n 6
0.35

s 2 n s n 0
2

s1 n n 2 1
s2 n n 2 1

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Second-order responses for

underdamped

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Control Systems

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Transient response

For step input as

a function of

For step input as

a function of and nt
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Unit impulse response

n2
Y (s) 2
2 R(s)
(s 2 n s n )

R(s)=1

T(s)=Y(s)

n t
y(t)
e
sin n t

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Control Systems

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Constant real part

Constant imaginary part

Constant damping ratio

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Standard performance measures

Ts (s) 4

T p

Settling time

Peak time

n 1 2

M pt1 e

1 2

P.O. 100 e

1 2

Peak response
Percent overshoot

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Control Systems
fig_04_14

55

Settling time
The settling time is defined as the time
required for a system to settle within a
certain percentage of the input amplitude.

Ts (s) 4

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Settling time

Ts (s) 4
Control Systems

n
57

Rise time
The time it takes for a signal to go from 10%
of its value to 90% of its final value

Tr (s)

2.16 0.60

0.3 0.8

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Rise time

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Peak time
Peak time is the time required by a signal to
reach its maximum value.

T p

n 1 2

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Peak time

T p

n 1 2
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Percent overshoot
Percent Overshoot is defined as:
P.O. = [(Mpt fv) / fv] * 100%

Mpt = The peak value of the time response

fv = Final value of the response

P.O. 100 e

1 2

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Percent overshoot

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Finding transient response

25
G(s)
s(s 5)
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25
T(s) 2
s 5s 25

T p

n 1 2

s 5s 25
2

s 2 n s

0.726 sec

2
n

n 25 5

2 n 5, 0.5

P.O. 100 e
Ts (s)

Control Systems

1 2

16.3%

1.6 sec

65

Gain design for transient response

K
G(s)
s(s 5)
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K
T(s) 2
s 5s K

for P.O. 10%

s 5s K
2

s 2 2 n s n2

n K
5
2 n 5,
2 K

P.O. 100e

0.591,

Control Systems

1 2

10.0%

K 17.9

67

General closed-loop T(s)

Y(s)
b0
T(s)
n
R(s) s bn1sn1 ... b1s b0

The T(s) has n poles and no zeros.

This T(s) has a steady-state error equal zero for a step input.
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Y(s)
b1s b0
T(s)
n
n1
R(s) s bn1s ... b1s b0
T(s) has a steady-state error equal to zero for a
ramp input.
T(s) has two or more pure integrations as
required to provide zero steady-state error.

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A: Simplification of linear system

K
G(s)
s(s 2)(s 30)

We can neglect the impact of the pole at s = - 30 ,

however we must retain the steady-state response
and
reduce the system to

K /30
G(s)
s(s 2)

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B: Simplification of linear systems

am sm am1sm1 a1s 1
H(s) K
,
n
n1
bn s an1s b1s 1

L(s) K

c psp

c1s 1

dg s

d1s 1

mn

pgn

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71

(k )

dk
( s) k M ( s)
ds

k
d
( k ) ( s ) k ( s )
ds

(1) k q M k (0) M ( 2 q k ) (0)

k 0
k!(2q k )!
2q

M 2q

M 2q 2q

q 1,2...

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Simplified model
H ( s)

6
1

s 3 6 s 2 11s 6 1 (11 / 6) s s 2 (1 / 6) s 3

6
L(s)
1 d1s d2 s2

M ( s ) 1 d1 s d 2 s 2
( s) 1 (11 / 6) s s 2 (1 / 6) s 3

( 0)

( s ) 1 d1 s d 2 s

Control Systems

M (0) 1
(0)

73

Example

M ( k ) ( s)
M

( 0)

d
(1 d1 s d 2 s 2 ) d1 2d 2 s
ds

(0) 1

( 0 ) (0) 1

(0) d1

(1) (0) 11 / 6

M ( 2) (0) 2d 2

(0) 2

(1)

M (3) (0) 0

( 2)

( 0) 1
( 3)

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Example
M 0 (0) M 2 (0) M 1 (0) M 1 (0)
M 2 (0) M 0 (0)
M 2 (1)

(1)
2
1
2

M 2 d 2 d 1 d 2 2 d 2 d 1
2

0 (0)2 (0) 1 (0)1 (0)

2 (0)0 (0) 49
2 (1)

(1)

2
1
2
36

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Example

2d 2 d 1

49

36

7
d2
18

1
1.60
L( s )

2
1 1.165s 0.625s
1.60 2.584s s 2

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Steady-state error calculation

The steady-state performance is an important
characteristic of control system , it
represses the ability to follow input signal
and resist interference

error and steady-state error

1.definition:
(1) according to output

e(t): system error,Cr(t): desired output,

ec (t ) output
Cr ( t ) c ( t )
c(t) :actual

C (s)

R(s)

C(t)

G(s)
Cr(t)

H (s )

ess

Steady-state error:

ecss lim ec (t ) lim [Cr (t ) c(t )]

t

The steady-state error relies on the

system's construction ,still the form
of the input signal.But stability
depends only on systems construction.

 (2) according to input

R(s)
B(s)

E (s)

C (s)
G(s)

H (s )

e(t ) r (t ) b(t )

ess lim e(t ) lim [r(t ) b(t )]

t

2.calculation

(1).final theorem

ess lim e(t ) lim s E ( s) lim s[ R( s) B( s)]

t

s0

s0

1 2
when input is (t ),1(t ), t , t
2

, final

theorem can be used.but when input is

sine or cosine signal,cannot used.

The steady-state error relies on the

system's construction ,still the form
of the input signal.
1
E ( s)
R( s )
1 G( s) H ( s)
k
G ( s ) H ( s ) v G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s
when s 0, G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s ) 1

( 1s 1)( s 21 2 s 1)
G0 ( s) H 0 ( s)
(T1s 1)(T s 22T2 s 1)
2 2
2
2 2
2

when=0,1,2 called respectively type-0

system, type-1 system, type-2 system (in
general<2)
so
1

E ( s)

k
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s

ess lim sE ( s ) lim s

s 0

s 0

R( s )

1
k
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s

R( s )

Define kp,kv,ka error coefficient

Step input ,represented by kp
k
k
k p lim G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s ) lim ,
s 0 s
s 0 s

position error coefficient

Speed input, represented by kv

k lim

s 0

k
1

G0 ( s) H 0 ( s) lim

s 0

s
velocity
error coefficient

Acceleration input, represented by ka

ka lim

s 0

k
2

G0 ( s) H 0 ( s) lim

s 0

k
2

Acceleration error coefficient

E ( s)

1
k
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s

ess lim sE ( s ) lim s

s 0

s 0

R( s)
1

k
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s

R( s)

when R ( s ) 1 / s
1

1
1
ess lim s
lim
s 0
s 0
k
k
s
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s
s
1
0
1 k
s
lim
0
1
s 0 s k
0
2

when R ( s ) 1 / s 2
1

1
ess lim s
2
s 0
k
s
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s
1
lim
s 0
k
s[1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )]
s
0
1
s
lim
1/ k 1
s 0 s k
0 2

when R( s ) 1 / s 3
1

1
ess lim s
3
s 0
k
s
1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )
s
1
lim
s 0 2
k
s [1 G0 ( s ) H 0 ( s )]
s
0
2
s
lim
1
s 0 s k
1/ k 2
0 3

Steady state error e

Stationary
system error
coefficient

type

0
1
2

kp k k
a
v

0 0

ss

2
r
(
t
)

A
t
2
r (t ) R0 1(t ) r (t ) V0t
0

R0
1 k

0
0

V0
k

A0
k

 increasing system type and open-loop

gain can increase system's accuracy,
but would lower stability,
exam.: given a system.its block diag. is
r (t ) 5 1(t )
-

10
s 2 2s 1

C (s)

H (s )
when H(s)=1and H(s)=0.5,solve ess

When H(s)=1,open-loop TF

10
G( s) H ( s) 2
, k 10, 0
s 2s 1
R0
5
5
ess

1 k 1 10 11
When H(s)=0.5,

10 0.5
G( s) H ( s) 2
, k 5, 0
s 2s 1
R0
5
5
ess

1 k 1 5 6

if in exam. above, H(s)=1,ess=0.2,solve k=?

R0
R0
5
ess
, so k
1
1 24
1 k
ess
0.2
1
when r (t ) 1(t ) t t 2 , H ( s) 1
,
2

solve ess in exam. above.

Because 0 type system ess = under

the speed input and acceleration input,

from addition rule,ess=

Dynamic error Coefficients

Problems

Stability of CT Systems in the s-Plane

Recall our stability condition for the Laplace transform of the impulse
response of a CT linear time-invariant system:

bM s M bM 1 s M 1 ... b0
H ( s)
Re pi 0 for i 1, 2, ..., N
N
N 1
s a N 1 s ... s0
This implies the poles are in the left-half plane.
This also implies:

LHP
h(t ) 0 as t and h(t ) dt

A system is said to be marginally stable

if its impulse response is bounded:

h(t ) c t
In this case, at least one pole of the system
lies on the j-axis.
Recall periodic signals also have poles on the j-axis because they are
marginally stable.
Also recall that the left-half plane maps to the inside of the unit circle in the zplane for discrete-time (sampled) signals.
We can show that circuits built from passive components (RLC) are always
stable if there is some resistance in the circuit.

Stability of CT Systems in the s-Plane

Example: Series RLC Circuit

H (s)

1 / LC
s 2 ( R / L) s 1 / LC

Using the quadratic formula:

R
1
R
p1 , p 2

2L
LC
2L

Case 1 :
2

1
R
0 two real poles

LC
2L
2

R
1
R

0 pole in LHP
2L
2
L
LC

always stable
2

R
1
R

0
2L
2
L
LC

quadratic term must be
always stable

R
2L

Case 2 :
2

1
R
0 two complex poles,

LC
2L
R
Rep1
always stable
2L

The RLC circuit

is always stable.
Why?

Time response vs. pole location

Stable

Unstable

f(t) = ept, p = a+bj

The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Test

The procedures for determining stability do not require finding the roots of the
denominator polynomial, which can be a daunting task for a high-order system
(e.g., 32 poles).
The Routh-Hurwitz stability test is a method of determining stability using
simple algebraic operations on the polynomial coefficients. It is best
demonstrated through an example.

Consider: A( s ) a N s N a N 1 s N 1 ... a1 s a 0
Construct the Routh array:

sN

aN

a N 2

a N 4

s N 1
s N 2

a N 1
bN 2

a N 3
bN 4

a N 5
bN 6

s N 3

s2
s1

c N 3

d2
e1

c N 5

d0
0

c N 7

0
0

s0

f0

N even : ( N / 2) 1 columns
N odd : ( N 1) / 2 columns
a N 1 a N 2 a N a N 3
a a
a N 2 N N 3
a N 1
a N 1
a a
a N a N 5
a a
N 1 N 4
a N 4 N N 5
a N 1
a N 1

bN 2
bN 4

Number of sign changes in 1st column = number of

poles in the RHPRLC circuit is always stable

Routh-Hurwitz Examples
Example: A( s ) s 2 a1 s a0

s2

a0

s1

a1
a1 a0 (1)(0)
a0
a1

s0

if a1 0 and a0 0 one sign change 1 RHP pole unstable

if a1 0 and a0 0 one sign change 1 RHP pole unstable
if a1 0 and a0 0 two sign changes 2 RHP poles unstable
Example: A( s ) s 3 a 2 s 2 a1 s a 0

s3
s2
s1
s0

1
a2
a 2 a1 (1)a0
a
a1 0
a2
a2
a0

a1
a0
0
0

if a 2 0 and a0 0 two sign changes 2 RHP poles unstable

PID Control

Simple, easy to use

Wide Application: Petrochemical, Pharmaceuticals, Food,
Chemical, Aerospace and Semiconductor, etc.
Robust: Insensitive to changes to plant parameter and
disturbance.
Over 90% control loops are PID with two exceptions:
1. On/off control for those with low control requirement loops

2. Advanced control for those difficult systems and with high

control quality.

Proportional Function
The controller output u is proportional to error signal e:

u Kce

where is proportional band

P control has steady state error.

Integral Function
Controller output is proportional to error e.
t
du
S 0 e u S 0 edt
0
dt

Output of I control is constant only e=0, no steady

state error.
Reduce system stability. I control is always slower
than that of P control,
Open loop gain is proportional to S0, increase S0
In reduce system stability.

PI Control
P to improve response time and reject disturbance,
I to eliminate steady state error.

1
1
u Kc e S0 edt e
0
TI
t

0 edt
t

Derivative Function
Output of controller is proportional to the differential of error

de
u S2
dt

or

dy
u S2
dt

Prediction: Adjusting the output according to speed of error.

D function must be formed to PD or PID controllers.
Controller takes no action if rate of change very small,
accumulate error.

PD and PID Control

de
de

K c e TD

dt
dt

1
de
e TD

dt

u K c e S2

de
0
dt

1 t
de 1
1
K c e edt TD

0
T
dt

TI

u K c e S0 edt S 2

edt TD

de

dt

Properties
1. Steady state, de/dt=0, PD control has steady state error.
2. D function reduces oscillation, increases system stability.
3. Adding D increase open loop gain, increase response speed.
4. Sensitive to disturbance.

General rules of Design PID Controller

Use D function, if system has large time constant and time

delay.

Using PD if the system allows steady state error, otherwise,

using PID

Use PI, if system has small time constant, small disturbance

and requires no steady state error.

Use P, if system has small time constant, small disturbance

and allow steady state error.

Use more advanced control scheme, if system has large time

constant, large time delay and disturbance.

Root Locus Design

Method
Part A: Introduction

Goal
Learn a specific technique which shows
how
changes in one of a systems
parameter
(usually the controller gain, K)
will modify the location of the closedloop poles
in the s-domain.

Root Locus Analysis

The roots of the closed-loop characteristic
equation define the system characteristic
responses.
Their location in the complex s-plane lead to
prediction of the characteristics of the time
domain responses in terms of:
damping ratio,
second-order modes
natural frequency, n
damping constant, first-order modes

Consider how these roots change as the loop

gain is varied from 0 to .

Root Locus Example

R(s)

E(s)

C(s)

K
s ( s 2)

The closed-loop
The characteristic
transfer function is
equation is
C (s)
K

R( s) s( s 2) K

s 2s K 0
2

Consider the
characteristic roots as K
=0.

Root Locus Example

s 1 1 K

For K = 0 the closed-loop

poles are at the open-loop
poles.
For 0 K 1 the closedloop poles are on the real
axis.
For K 1 the closed-loop
poles are complex, with a
real value of 1 and an
imaginary value increasing
with gain K .

loci of closed-loop roots

j

K=1

X
K=0

Root Locus Example:

Step Responses
Step Responses
1.6
1.4

K = 50.0
K = 15.0

Amplitude

1.2

K = 2.0

K=1

K = 1.0

0.8
0.6

K = 0.5

0.4

X
K=0

0.2

0
0

Time (sec.)

10

Root Locus Example:

Some Observations
This is a second-order system and there two loci.
The root loci start at the open-loop poles.
The root loci tend towards the open-loop zeros at
infinity as K . (Note: the number of zeros is
equal to the number of poles, when the zeros at
infinity are included.)
The relationship between the characteristic
responses and the increasing gain is seen through
the root loci.

The General Root Locus Method

Consider the
general system
R(s)

The characteristic
equation is
C(s)

G(s)

1 GH ( s) 0

or

H(s)

where
C ( s)
G ( s)

R ( s ) 1 GH ( s )

GH ( s) 1

or
GH ( s) 1
GH ( s) (2k 1)
k 0, 1, 2

The General Root Locus

Method
All values of s which satisfy
k; 0, 1, 2
GH ( s) 1 ; GH ( s) (2k 1)
are roots of the closed-loop characteristic
equation.
Consider the following general form
z1 )( s z2 ) ( s zm )
K
(
s
GH ( s )
( s p1 )( s p2 ) ( s pn )
Note : pi may be zero.

The General Root Locus Method

Then
m

GH ( s )

sz

i 1

s p
i 1

i 1

i 1

GH ( s ) ( s zi ) ( s pi ) (2k 1)
k 0, 1, 2

Root Locus Method:

Geometric Interpretation
Consider the example

p3
-p3 X B s1

K ( s z1 )
GH ( s )
s ( s p2 )( s p3 )

Then the values of s

= s1 which satisfy
K s z1
1
s s p2 s p3

A
O
-z1

z1
D

-p2 X

p1
-p1

p2

( s z1 ) (s ( s p2 ) ( s p3 )) (2k 1)
are on the loci and are roots of the characteristic equation.

Root Locus Method:

Geometric Interpretation
In terms of the
vectors, the condition
for s = s1 to be on the
root
K Aloci are A
1
BCD

1 or

BCD

and
z1 ( p1 p 2 p 3 ) (2k 1)
k 0, 1, 2,

p3

-p3 X B s1

A
O
-z1

z1
D

-p2 X

p2

p1
-p1

Root Locus Method

When plotting the loci
The magnitude
of the roots as
condition may then be
K = 0 , the
used to determine the
magnitude condition
gain K corresponding to
is always satisfied.
that value s1 .
Therefore, a value of
How can we easily
s = s1 that satisfies
determine if the angle
the angle condition, is
condition is satisfied?
a point of the root loci.

Root Locus Construction Rules

1. The loci start (K = 0)
at the poles of the
open-loop system.
There are n loci .
2. The loci terminate
(K ) at the zeroes
of the open-loop
system (include
zeroes at infinity).

For our example

system
s z1
1

GH ( s)
s s p2 s p3 K

Therefore, as K 0 ,
GH(s) , the poles
of the loop transfer
function.
As K , GH(s) 0 ,
the zeroes of the loop
transfer function.

Root Locus Construction

Rules
3. The root loci are
symmetrical about
the real axis.
4. As K the loci
approach
asymptotes. There
are q = n m
asymptotes and they
intersect the real axis
at angles defined by

The roots with

imaginary parts always
occur in conjugate
complex pairs.
When the loci
approach infinity, the
angles from all the
poles and zeroes are
equal. The angle
condition then is

(2k 1)
, k 0, 1, 2, m n = (2k + 1)
q

Root Locus Construction

Rules
5. The asymptotes
intersection point on
the real is defined by

a poles of GH (s) zeroes of GH (s)

q

6. Real axis sections of

the root loci exist only
where there is an odd
number of poles and
zeroes to the right.

The angles from

poles and zeroes to
the left of s1 are
zero. The angles
from poles and
zeroes to the right
are .An odd
number are required
to satisfy the angle
condition.

Root Locus Construction Rules

Example
Consider our example
with z1 = 4 , p12 = 1
2j

K ( s 4)
GH ( s )
s ( s 1 2 j )( s 1 2 j )

Asymptotes:

real axis
locus

(2k 1)

angles =
3 1
2

0 (1 2 j ) (1 2 j )] [(4)]
[
a
1

3 1

asymptote

2j

2 1

+1
2j

Root Locus Construction

Rules
7. The angles of
departure, d from
poles and arrival, a
to zeroes may be
found by applying the
angle condition to a
point very near the
pole or zero.

The angle of arrival

at the zero, -z1 is
obtained from
m

az1 ( -z1 zi )
i 2

(-z p ) (2k 1)
i 1

Root Locus Construction Rules

Example
Departure angle from p2 .
z1 = tan-1(2/3) = 33.7
p1 = tan-1(2/1) = 116.6
-z1

p3 = 90
O

Then
33.7 (90 + 116.6 + p2 ) =
180
p2 = 352.9 = + 7.1

p2

-p2
X

2j
116.6

33.7

X -p

90

-pX
3

2j

+1

Root Locus Construction

Rules
8. The imaginary axis
crossing is obtained by
applying the RouthHurwitz criterion and
checking for the gain
that results in marginal
stability. The
imaginary components
are found from the
solution of the resulting
auxiliary equation.

Marginal stability
refers to the point
where the roots of the
closed-loop system
are on the stability
boundary, i.e. the
imaginary axis.

Root Locus Construction

Rules
Imaginary axis
crossing:
Characteristic equation

For marginal
stability,
K = 5 and the
s ( s 1 2 j )( s 1 2 j ) K ( s 4) 0
auxiliary equation is
3
2

s 2 s (5 K ) s 4 K 0
2 s 2 20 0
Routh table
s 10 j 3.16 j
s3 1

5+K 0

s2 2

4K

5K

s0 4K

Therefore, the
imaginary axis
intersection is
3.16 j

Root Locus Construction Rules

Example
Summary:
There are three root loci.
One on the real axis
from -p1 to -z1 , and a
-z1
pair of loci from -p2 and O
4
p3 to zeroes at infinity
along the asymptotes.
The departure angle
from these poles is 7.1
and an imaginary axis
crossing at s = 3.16j .

7.1

-p2
X

j
3.16 j
2j

X -p

-pX
3

2j

+1

Root Locus Construction

Rules
Breakaway Points:
When two or more
loci meet, they will
breakaway from this
point at particular
angles. The point is
known as a
breakaway point. It
corresponds to
multiple roots.

Some examples

x
x

45

Root Locus Construction

Rules
9. The angle of
breakaway is 180/k
where k is the
number of converging
loci.
The location of the
breakaway point is
found from

dK
d [GH ( s)]
0 or
0
ds
ds

Note: K [GH ( s )]1

2 d [GH ( s )]
dK [
0
GH ( s)]
ds
ds

Also,
d [GH ( s)] d [N ( s) D( s)]
ds
ds
( s) N ( s) D( s)
N

0
2
D( s)
D( s )
D( s) N ( s) N ( s) D( s) 0

Root Locus Plot:

Breakaway Point Example
Consider the following loop
transfer function.
GH ( s)

K
s( s 3) 2

Real axis loci exist for the

full negative axis.
Asymptotes:
angles = (2k+1)= /3 , ,
3
5/3
( 3 3 0 ) ( 0 )
a
2
3

asymptotes
2j

60
4

XX

+1
2j

Root Locus Plot:

Breakaway Point Example
Determine the
breakaway points from

j
2j

d K d
K
3

2
ds s ( s 3) ds s 6 s 2 9 s
K (3s 2 12 s 9)

0
3
2
2
( s 6s 9s)

then
s 2 4 s 3 ( s 1)( s 3) 0
s 1 , 3

XX

+1
2j

Root Locus Construction

Rules
10. For a point on the
root locus, s =s1
calculate the gain, K
from
s1 p1 s1 p2
K
s1 z 1 s1 z 2

Alternately, K may be
determined graphically
from the root locus
plot
X

B s j
1

D
X

BCD
K
A

Summary of Root Locus Plot

Construction
Plot the poles and zeros of the open-loop
system.
Find the section of the loci on the real axis
(odd number of poles an zeroes to the right).
Determine the asymptote angles and
intercepts.
(2k 1)
angles
, q n m,
q
poles zeroes

a
q

k 0, 1, 2,

Summary of Root Locus Plot

Construction
Determine departure angles. For a pole (p-p11 z1) (-p1 z2 ) p1 (-p1 p2 ) (2k 1)
Check for imaginary axis crossings using
the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
Determine breakaway points.
angle / k , k # of converging loci
d [GH ( s )]
0
location from
ds

Complete the plot.

Root Locus with Other

Parameters
Can we plot the root
locus in terms of the
variation of a
parameter other
than gain, for
example a time
constant?
To achieve this we
apply a
mathematical trick.

Consider the loop transfer

function
(1 s )
GH ( s ) 10

s ( s 2)

characteristic equation

s 2 2 s 10 s 10 0

regrouping the terms

( s 2 2 s 10) 10 s 0

equivalent loop transfer

function
10 s
G H (s)

s 2 2 s 10

Root Locus with Other

Parameters
The open-loop poles
= 0 j
= 0.294
are
X
x
s = 1 3j and the zero
is s = 0 .
= 0.4325
= 0.9
Asymptotes: 180
x
x
O
4
2
Angle of departure:
108 (90 + d) = 180
x
d = 198
X
Break-in point sb =
3.16

3j

+1

3j

Root Locus with Two

Parameters
The root locus
method focuses on
the roots of the
characteristic
equation.
There can be several
different loop transfer
functions that have
the same closed-loop
characteristic
equation.

To construct the root

locus for a
characteristic equation
which has two
parameters, we
construct fictitious
loop transfer functions
and apply the normal
methods.

Learning by doing Example 1

1) Sketch the root locus of the following
system:

2) Determine the value of K such that the

damping ratio of a pair of dominant
complex conjugate closed-loop is 0.5.

Rule #1
Assuming n poles and m zeros for
G(s)H(s):
The n branches of the root locus start
at the n poles.
m of these n branches end on the m
zeros
The n-m other branches terminate at
infinity along asymptotes.
First step: Draw the n poles and m zeros
of G(s)H(s) using x and o respectively

Applying Step #1
Draw the n poles and
m zeros of
G(s)H(s) using x
and o respectively.
1
G s H s
ss 1s 2

3 poles:
p1 = 0; p2 = -1; p3 = -2
No zeros

Applying Step #1
Draw the n poles and
m zeros of
G(s)H(s) using x
and o respectively.
1
G s H s
ss 1s 2

3 poles:
p1 = 0; p2 = -1; p3 = -2

Rule #2
The loci on the real axis are to the left
of an ODD number of REAL poles and
REAL zeros of G(s)H(s)
Second step: Determine the loci on the
real axis. Choose a arbitrary test point. If
the TOTAL number of both real poles
and zeros is to the RIGHT of this point is
ODD, then this point is on the root locus

Applying Step #2
Determine the loci on the
real axis:
Choose a arbitrary test
point.
If the TOTAL number of
both real poles and
zeros is to the RIGHT
of this point is ODD,
then this point is on the
root locus

Applying Step #2
Determine the loci on the
real axis:
Choose a arbitrary test
point.
If the TOTAL number of
both real poles and
zeros is to the RIGHT
of this point is ODD,
then this point is on the
root locus

Rule #3
Assuming n poles and m zeros for G(s)H(s):

The root loci for very large values of s must

be asymptotic to straight lines originate on
the real axis at point:
s

p z
i

nm

180 o 2l 1
l
nm

radiating out from this point at angles:

Third step: Determine the n - m asymptotes of
the root loci. Locate s = on the real axis.
Compute and draw angles. Draw the
asymptotes using dash lines.

Applying Step #3
Determine the n - m
asymptotes:
Locate s = on the real
axis:
p1 p2 p3
s

180 2l 1
nm

30
l 0,1, 2,

Compute and draw

angles: 0

180 2 0 1

600

0
30

0
180 2 1 1 1800
1
30

0 1 2

1
3

Applying Step #3
Determine the n - m
asymptotes:
Locate s = on the real
axis: s p1 p2 p3 0 1 2 1
l

180 2l 1
nm

30

l 0,1, 2,

Compute and draw

angles:

1800 2 0 1

600

0
30

0
180 2 1 1 1800
1
30

Breakpoint Definition
The breakpoints are the points in the sdomain where multiples roots of the
characteristic equation of the feedback
control occur.

These points correspond to intersection

points on the root locus.

Rule #4
Given the characteristic equation is KG(s)H(s) = 1
The breakpoints are the closed-loop poles
dK
that satisfy:

ds

1
K
.
G s H s

Fourth step: Find the breakpoints. Express K

such as:

Applying Step #4
Find the breakpoints.
Express K such as:

1
K
s s 1s 2
G( s ) H ( s )
K s 3 3s 2 2 s

Set dK/ds = 0 and solve

for the poles.
3s 2 6s 2 0

s1 1.5774, s2 0.4226

Applying Step #4
Find the breakpoints.
ExpressK
1 such as:
K

G( s ) H ( s )

s s 1s 2

K s 3 3s 2 2 s

Set dK/ds = 0 and solve

for
3s 2the
6spoles.
2 0
s1 1.5774, s2 0.4226

Recall Rule #1
Assuming n poles and m zeros for
G(s)H(s):
The n branches of the root locus start
at the n poles.
m of these n branches end on the m
zeros
The n-m other branches terminate at
infinity along asymptotes.

Applying Last Step

Draw the n-m branches
that terminate at infinity
along asymptotes

Points on both root locus &

imaginary axis?
Points on imaginary axis
satisfy:

s j

j?

Points on root locus

satisfy:
1 KGs H s 0

Substitute s=j into the

characteristic equation
and solve for . 0 or 2

- j

Exercise

1) Sketch the root locus of the following

system:

2) Determine the value of K such that the

damping ratio of a pair of dominant
complex conjugate closed-loop is 0.5.