CHAPTER 1: BASIC CHEMISTRY OF A CELL
1.1 Physical and chemical properties and physiological roles.
is an important component
1 of cells.
1.1.1 Makes up about 60 - 95% of
WATER the fresh mass of an organisms.
Acts as a solvent and is often
reactant in metabolism and provides
an aqueous environment for many
4
organisms.
properties of water molecules are due mostly to the molecules
ability to form hydrogen bonds, its polarity and its small sizes.
Water molecule
( 2 ).
oxygen atom has a
O slight negative charge ( 2 ).
+ +
104.5o
Hydrogen atom has a
H H +
slight positive charge ( ).
1. P0LARITY OF WATER MOLECULE
Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom
whereas 1p
8p
with 8 protons on its nucleus, hydrogen atom with a single proton
an oxygen atom has a much on its nucleus make its less
stronger attraction for electrons. attraction for electron.
thus
at any moment, there is a great probability
of finding the shared electrons near the oxygen atom
than near the oxygen atom.
That is why, the hydrogen end of the molecule positive and
the oxygen end negative, other reason ???? Think..
Because the water molecule has a bent shape as shown on
figure 1.
( 2 ) bent shape
+
+ O
H H
Fig. 1
the oxygen atom is on one end of the molecule and the
hydrogen atoms are on the other.
as a result
the oxygen end of the molecule has a slight negative charge.
the hydrogen end of the molecule has a slight positive charge.
A molecule in which the charges are unevenly
distributed called a polar molecule because
the molecule is like a magnet with poles.
The charge distribution is uneven
within the molecule.
The negative pole is near the oxygen atom and the
positive pole is between the hydrogen atoms.
A water molecule is polar because there is an
uneven distribution of electrons between the
oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
the unequal sharing of electrons causes the water
molecule to be polar.
Revision questions:
1. What kind of bonds join the atoms in a water molecule?
2. Are the hydrogen atoms bonded to each other?
3. Why is the hydrogen end of the molecule positive
and the oxygen end negative?.
4. What is the meaning of polar?
Exercise 1.1
1. A water molecule has unevenly/unequal charge distribution
within the molecule. The oxygen atom has a slight negative
charge and the hydrogen atom has a slight positive charge.
It is said to be a dipolar molecule. One water molecule can fo
2.Water is called the universal solvent because polar and ionic
substances dissolve readily in it.
Cohesion occurs between molecules of the same substance
Adhesion- occurs between molecules of different substance.
2. HYDROGEN BONDS
Because of their partial positive and negative charges,
polar molecules such as water can attract each other
as shown in figure 2.
a single water molecule may be involved in as many as
four hydrogen bonds at the same time
H H
O
(-)
charges on a polar molecules
are written in parentheses
(+) & (-) to show that they are
H weaker then the charges on ions
+ -
such as Na and Cl
O
H (+)
H
O H
H
O
figure 2. H
H
H
O
Hydrogen bond
a water molecules can form 4 hydrogen bond with other
water molecules.
+
+
the +ve & -ve regions
of water molecules are attracted
to the oppositely-charged regions Hydrogen bond
2
of other molecules.
is an example of an attraction
hydrogen bonds are not as strong between hydrogen atom and
as covalent or ionic bonds, +
oxygen atom of another
water molecule.
but waters ability to form
multiple hydrogen bond Is responsible 2
for many of its special Properties and
its physiological roles on + +
+
Our life.
2
2
+
+
+
Figure 3 +
2
1. Water is a universal solvent and chemical reactions occur in
solution.
2. Thus, its an excellent solvent to dissolve polar substances like
electrolytes and non-electrolytes such as hydrophilic organic
compounds, which have OH, -COOH, -NH2, -CO and PO4 groups.
3. Polar substances that can dissolve in water are called
HYDROPHILIC.
4. Non-polar substances such as lipids and hydrocarbons that do
not interact with water are called HYDROPHOBIC.
5. Water molecules can surround the polar groups and weaken inter
Molecular or inter-ionic bonds as in sodium chloride as in figure 4,
Shows what happened when Natrium chloride is added to water.
H H
Na+
Cl- + H H
O O H H
Na+ Cl - Added together O
O H H
Na+ Cl - H H H O
H
O H O
H
H O + O Cl- H
Na H
H H Figure 4
H
O
H O
H
-ve end of oxygen atom in +ve ends of the hydrogen atoms
are attracted to chloride ions (Cl-).
the water molecules are attracted to
( electrostatic attraction)
the sodium ions (Na+).
( electrostatic attractions) WHY ?????
The electrostatic attractions are greater than those between cations Na+
Thus,
Water molecules gather around sodium and chloride ions.
This mean, the ions are separated in water are said to be hydrated.
Because of the waters polarity its physiological role are as follows:
1. It provides a medium for reaction to take place. This can be
seen in seed that absorbs water and starts germinating
almost immediately. Enzymes within the seed are activated
and start reacting with substrates, for example respiratory
reactions start to take place.
2. It act as solvent for transport in the blood animals, or in xylem
and phloem of plants. Inorganic and organic nutrients dissolve in
water and are transported in soluble forms.
3. VISCOSITY : 3. 1. Water has a relatively low viscosity
3.2. This is because of its small size and its molecules can slide
over each other easily and also the hydrogen bonding within it
can continuously be broken and reformed.
3.3 Its physiological roles of low viscosity are as follows:
a. It enable blood plasma and lymph flow easily in the circulatory
system of animals.
b. Water in xylem and phloem likewise flows
easily.
c. water acts as an excellent medium for diffusion
and enables fast equilibrium of water potential
within and with outside of cells.
d. Water in the tear lubricates and protects the eye.
e. The water molecules can slide easily over each other and
able to
flow with less friction through narrow vessels.
f. Blood vessels and watery solutions for example can act as
lubricants to allow food to move easily down the alimentary canal.
4. DENSITY OF WATER
4.1 As water cools, the movement of water molecules slow down
and the molecules are farther apart.
Each water molecules can form a maximum number of four
hydrogen bonds with other water molecules.
Under room temperature about 20% of such bond exists in
water. The lower the temperature the more of such bonds are
formed.
o
At 0 C, it freezes, all the molecules are involved in forming the
three-dimensional structure of ice. See figure 5
This explains why ice expands when formed and it has a lower
density.
Hydrogen atom
Oxygen atom
hydrogen bond
Figure 5
-Hydrogen bond in ice
-Structure of ice.
Structure of ice on figure 5
o
When water cools below 0 C, the water molecules are further
apart and form the maximum four hydrogen bonds with other
molecules.
The lattice crystal occupies a bigger space and has fewer
molecules compared to an equal volume of liquid and floats in
the liquid water.
4.2 Water expands as it freezes and is less dense than
liquid water.
Water has its maximum density at 40C.
At 0
0C and below, ice is formed and floats on the surface forming a
5.0 WATER HAS A HIGH COHESIVE FORCE
5.1 Cohesion is the force of mutual attraction between like
molecules and causes molecules on the surface of water to be
drawn inward.
= Molecule of water
drawn inward
Note: Adhesion occurs between molecules of different substances
or molecules.
Water molecules, being polar, readily form hydrogen bonds with
other molecules.
This hydrogen bonding between water molecules results in
strong cohesive forces.
The water molecules tend to stick together, because there is a
high attractive force among water molecules, this phenomenon
is called cohesion.
5.2 Its physiological roles of high cohesive force are as follows:
a. Together with adhesive force, water creates a
transpiration pull in the xylem vessels when
evaporation occurs in the leaves. This help to
transport water and mineral ions up to the leaves.
b. Cohesion and adhesion of water molecules enables
them to stay in in upper layer of soil called topsoil.
Good quality of soil of fine grain sizes together with
humus retain the right amount water so that plants and
other soil organisms can live well in it.
6. WATER HAS A HIGH SURFACE TENSION
6.1 Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or
break the surface of a liquid. Water has a greater surface
tension than most other liquids.
6.2 High surface tension means there is a strong inward pull of
water forming a skin-like layer at the surface of water. This is
caused by the high cohesive forces of water molecules as a
result of hydrogen bonding.
Molecule of water
Surface
tension
6.3 Surface tension creates a habitat at the water surface
6.4 It allows insects to stay on the surface where it can gather food
or catch their preys like water skaters.
7.0 WATER HAS HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY.
7.1 Water has the ability to stabilize its temperature, relatively
because water has high specific heat capacity.
HOW DOES THIS HAPPEN?????
The Specific Heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change
its temperature by 1oC.
The specific heat of water is 4.2 Jg-1oC-1, this is much higher
that that of most other liquids because of its extensive hydrogen
bonding.
Heat must be absorbed in order to break hydrogen bonds
first, and heat is released when hydrogen bonds form.
This means that water does not change temperature
easily.
That is why a large amount of heat energy is required to
raise the temperature of water.
Temperature is raised when the individual molecules or
atoms can vibrate vigorously.
7.2 The physiological roles of high specific heat capacity are
as follows:
- water in our body can absorb a lot of heat
from the muscles or environment before its
temperature would rise. This prevent our
body temperature rising too fast.
It provides a more constant environment in the sea for
aquatic organisms to live. This is especially so in hot
afternoon when exposed rock is so hot that no animal can
stay on it compared with the sea water where fish can still
swim in it.
8.0 WATER HAS HIGH LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION
a. This means that a lot of heat is required to change water to
vapour.
b. This is because the hydrogen bonds among its molecules need a
lot of heat to break before it can free itself from the liquid state.
c. Therefore, vaporisation always results in cooling the
surroundings. It provides maximum cooling effect with minimum
lost of water.
8.1 Its physiological roles of high heat of vaporisation are as
follows:
This enables many land invertebrates to survive such
as earthworms and snails. However they are nocturnal,
coming out at night to forage for food to cut down water
loss.
It also helps to lower our body temperature when we
sweat.
When sweat evaporating it absorbs heat from our skin and
cools our body.
