Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

Unit-VI

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2

 Classification vs. Prediction
 Classification:
 predicts categorical class labels

 classifies data (constructs a model) based on the training

set and the values (class labels) in a classifying attribute

and uses it in classifying new data
 Prediction:
 models continuous-valued functions, i.e., predicts

unknown or missing values

 Typical Applications
 credit approval

 target marketing

 medical diagnosis

 treatment effectiveness analysis

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3

 Classification—A Two-Step Process

 Model construction: describing a set of predetermined classes

 Each tuple/sample is assumed to belong to a predefined class,

as determined by the class label attribute

 The set of tuples used for model construction: training set

 The model is represented as classification rules, decision trees,

or mathematical formulae
 Model usage: for classifying future or unknown objects
 Estimate accuracy of the model

 The known label of test sample is compared with the

classified result from the model

 Accuracy rate is the percentage of test set samples that are

correctly classified by the model

 Test set is independent of training set, otherwise over-fitting

will occur
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4
 Classification Process (1): Model
Construction
Classification
Algorithms
Training
Data

NAME RANK YEARS TENURED Classifier

Mike Assistant Prof 3 no (Model)
Mary Assistant Prof 7 yes
Bill Professor 2 yes
Jim Associate Prof 7 yes IF rank = ‘professor’
Dave Assistant Prof 6 no
OR years > 6
Anne Associate Prof 3 no
THEN tenured = ‘yes’
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5
 Classification Process (2): Use the
Model in Prediction

Classifier

Testing
Data Unseen Data

(Jeff, Professor, 4)
NAME RANK YEARS TENURED
Tom Assistant Prof 2 no Tenured?
Merlisa Associate Prof 7 no
George Professor 5 yes
Joseph Assistant Prof 7 yes
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 6
 Supervised vs. Unsupervised
Learning
 Supervised learning (classification)
 Supervision: The training data (observations,
measurements, etc.) are accompanied by labels
indicating the class of the observations
 New data is classified based on the training set
 Unsupervised learning (clustering)
 The class labels of training data is unknown
 Given a set of measurements, observations, etc. with
the aim of establishing the existence of classes or
clusters in the data
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7
 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8

 Issues regarding classification and
prediction (1): Data Preparation

 Data cleaning
 Preprocess data in order to reduce noise and handle
missing values
 Relevance analysis (feature selection)
 Remove the irrelevant or redundant attributes
 Data transformation
 Generalize and/or normalize data

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
(2): Evaluating Classification Methods

 Predictive accuracy
 Speed and scalability
 time to construct the model

 time to use the model

 Robustness
 handling noise and missing values

 Scalability
 efficiency in disk-resident databases

 Interpretability:
 understanding and insight provided by the model

 Goodness of rules
 decision tree size

 compactness of classification rules

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11

 Classification by Decision Tree
Induction
 Decision tree
 A flow-chart-like tree structure

 Internal node denotes a test on an attribute

 Branch represents an outcome of the test

 Leaf nodes represent class labels or class distribution

 Decision tree generation consists of two phases

 Tree construction

 At start, all the training examples are at the root

 Partition examples recursively based on selected attributes

 Tree pruning

 Identify and remove branches that reflect noise or outliers

 Use of decision tree: Classifying an unknown sample

 Test the attribute values of the sample against the decision tree

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12

 Training Dataset

age income student credit_rating

This <=30 high no fair
<=30 high no excellent
follows 31…40 high no fair
an >40 medium no fair
example >40 low yes fair
>40 low yes excellent
from 31…40 low yes excellent
Quinlan’s <=30 medium no fair
ID3 <=30 low yes fair
>40 medium yes fair
<=30 medium yes excellent
31…40 medium no excellent
31…40 high yes fair
>40 medium no excellent
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13
 Output: A Decision Tree for “buys_computer”

age?

<=30 overcast
30..40 >40

student? yes credit rating?

no yes excellent fair

no yes no yes

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14

 Algorithm for Decision Tree Induction
 Basic algorithm (a greedy algorithm)
 Tree is constructed in a top-down recursive divide-and-conquer

manner
 At start, all the training examples are at the root

 Attributes are categorical (if continuous-valued, they are

discretized in advance)
 Examples are partitioned recursively based on selected attributes

 Test attributes are selected on the basis of a heuristic or

statistical measure (e.g., information gain)

 Conditions for stopping partitioning
 All samples for a given node belong to the same class

 There are no remaining attributes for further partitioning –

majority voting is employed for classifying the leaf

 There are no samples left

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15

 Attribute Selection Measure

 Information gain (ID3/C4.5)

 All attributes are assumed to be categorical

 Can be modified for continuous-valued attributes

 Gini index (IBM IntelligentMiner)

 All attributes are assumed continuous-valued

 Assume there exist several possible split values for each

attribute
 May need other tools, such as clustering, to get the

possible split values

 Can be modified for categorical attributes

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 16

 Information Gain (ID3/C4.5)

 Select the attribute with the highest information gain

 Assume there are two classes, P and N
 Let the set of examples S contain p elements of class P
and n elements of class N
 The amount of information, needed to decide if an
arbitrary example in S belongs to P or N is defined as

p p n n
I ( p, n)   log 2  log 2
pn pn pn pn

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17

 Information Gain in Decision
Tree Induction

 Assume that using attribute A a set S will be partitioned

into sets {S1, S2 , …, Sv}
 If Si contains pi examples of P and ni examples of N,
the entropy, or the expected information needed to
classify objects in all subtrees Si is
pi  ni
E ( A)   I ( pi , ni )
i 1 p  n

 The encoding information that would be gained by

branching on A
Gain( A)  I ( p, n)  E ( A)

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18

 Attribute Selection by Information
Gain Computation
5 4
E ( age)  I ( 2,3)  I ( 4,0)
 Class P: buys_computer = 14 14
“yes” 5
 I (3,2)  0.69
14
 Class N: buys_computer =
“no” Hence
 I(p, n) = I(9, 5) =0.940 Gain(age)  I ( p, n)  E (age)
 Compute the entropy for age:
Similarly
age pi ni I(pi, ni) Gain(income)  0.029
<=30 2 3 0.971
Gain( student )  0.151
30…40 4 0 0
>40 3 2 0.971 Gain(credit _ rating )  0.048

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

 Gini Index (IBM IntelligentMiner)
 If a data set T contains examples from n classes, gini index,
gini(T) is defined as n 2
gini(T )  1  p j
j 1
where pj is the relative frequency of class j in T.
 If a data set T is split into two subsets T1 and T2 with sizes
N1 and N2 respectively, the gini index of the split data
contains examples from n classes, the gini index gini(T) is
defined as
N 1 gini( )  N 2 gini( )
gini split (T )  T1 T2
N N
 The attribute provides the smallest ginisplit(T) is chosen to
split the node (need to enumerate all possible splitting
points for each attribute).
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20
 Extracting Classification Rules from Trees

 Represent the knowledge in the form of IF-THEN rules

 One rule is created for each path from the root to a leaf
 Each attribute-value pair along a path forms a conjunction
 The leaf node holds the class prediction
 Rules are easier for humans to understand
 Example
IF age = “<=30” AND student = “no” THEN buys_computer = “no”
IF age = “<=30” AND student = “yes” THEN buys_computer = “yes”
IF age = “31…40” THEN buys_computer = “yes”
IF age = “>40” AND credit_rating = “excellent” THEN
buys_computer = “yes”
IF age = “>40” AND credit_rating = “fair” THEN buys_computer =
“no”

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21

 Avoid Overfitting in Classification
 The generated tree may overfit the training data
 Too many branches, some may reflect anomalies due

to noise or outliers
 Result is in poor accuracy for unseen samples

 Two approaches to avoid overfitting

 Prepruning: Halt tree construction early—do not split

a node if this would result in the goodness measure

falling below a threshold
 Difficult to choose an appropriate threshold

 Postpruning: Remove branches from a “fully grown”

tree—get a sequence of progressively pruned trees

 Use a set of data different from the training data

to decide which is the “best pruned tree”

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22
 Approaches to Determine the Final
Tree Size
 Separate training (2/3) and testing (1/3) sets
 Use cross validation, e.g., 10-fold cross validation
 Use all the data for training
 but apply a statistical test (e.g., chi-square) to
estimate whether expanding or pruning a node
may improve the entire distribution
 Use minimum description length (MDL) principle:
 halting growth of the tree when the encoding is
minimized
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 23
 Enhancements to basic decision
tree induction
 Allow for continuous-valued attributes
 Dynamically define new discrete-valued attributes that

partition the continuous attribute value into a discrete

set of intervals
 Handle missing attribute values
 Assign the most common value of the attribute

 Assign probability to each of the possible values

 Attribute construction
 Create new attributes based on existing ones that are

sparsely represented
 This reduces fragmentation, repetition, and replication

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24

 Classification in Large Databases

 Classification—a classical problem extensively studied by

statisticians and machine learning researchers
 Scalability: Classifying data sets with millions of examples
and hundreds of attributes with reasonable speed
 Why decision tree induction in data mining?
 relatively faster learning speed (than other classification

methods)
 convertible to simple and easy to understand

classification rules
 can use SQL queries for accessing databases

 comparable classification accuracy with other methods

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25

 Scalable Decision Tree Induction
Methods in Data Mining Studies
 SLIQ (EDBT’96 — Mehta et al.)
 builds an index for each attribute and only class list and

the current attribute list reside in memory

 SPRINT (VLDB’96 — J. Shafer et al.)
 constructs an attribute list data structure

 PUBLIC (VLDB’98 — Rastogi & Shim)

 integrates tree splitting and tree pruning: stop growing

the tree earlier

 RainForest (VLDB’98 — Gehrke, Ramakrishnan & Ganti)
 separates the scalability aspects from the criteria that

determine the quality of the tree

 builds an AVC-list (attribute, value, class label)

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26

 Data Cube-Based Decision-Tree
Induction

 Integration of generalization with decision-tree induction

(Kamber et al’97).
 Classification at primitive concept levels
 E.g., precise temperature, humidity, outlook, etc.

 Low-level concepts, scattered classes, bushy

classification-trees
 Semantic interpretation problems.

 Cube-based multi-level classification

 Relevance analysis at multi-levels.

 Information-gain analysis with dimension + level.

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27

 Presentation of Classification Results

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29

 Bayesian Classification: Why?

 Probabilistic learning: Calculate explicit probabilities for

hypothesis, among the most practical approaches to certain
types of learning problems
 Incremental: Each training example can incrementally
increase/decrease the probability that a hypothesis is correct.
Prior knowledge can be combined with observed data.
 Probabilistic prediction: Predict multiple hypotheses, weighted
by their probabilities
 Standard: Even when Bayesian methods are computationally
intractable, they can provide a standard of optimal decision
making against which other methods can be measured

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30

 Bayesian Theorem

 Given training data D, posteriori probability of a

hypothesis h, P(h|D) follows the Bayes theorem
P(h | D)  P(D | h)P(h)
P(D)
 MAP (maximum posteriori) hypothesis
h  arg max P(h | D)  arg max P(D | h)P(h).
MAP hH hH
 Practical difficulty: require initial knowledge of many
probabilities, significant computational cost

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31

 Bayesian classification
 The classification problem may be formalized
using a-posteriori probabilities:
 P(C|X) = prob. that the sample tuple
X=<x1,…,xk> is of class C.

 E.g. P(class=N | outlook=sunny,windy=true,…)

 Idea: assign to sample X the class label C such

that P(C|X) is maximal

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34

 Estimating a-posteriori probabilities

 Bayes theorem:
P(C|X) = P(X|C)·P(C) / P(X)
 P(X) is constant for all classes
 P(C) = relative freq of class C samples
 C such that P(C|X) is maximum =
C such that P(X|C)·P(C) is maximum
 Problem: computing P(X|C) is unfeasible!
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35
 Naïve Bayesian Classification

 Naïve assumption: attribute independence

P(x1,…,xk|C) = P(x1|C)·…·P(xk|C)
 If i-th attribute is categorical:
P(xi|C) is estimated as the relative freq of
samples having value xi as i-th attribute in class C
 If i-th attribute is continuous:
P(xi|C) is estimated thru a Gaussian density
function
 Computationally easy in both cases

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36

 Play-tennis example: estimating P(xi|
C) outlook
P(sunny|p) = 2/9 P(sunny|n) = 3/5
Outlook Temperature Humidity W indy Class
sunny hot high false N P(overcast|p) = P(overcast|n) = 0
sunny hot high true N
overcast hot high false P 4/9
rain mild high false P
rain cool normal false P P(rain|p) = 3/9 P(rain|n) = 2/5
rain cool normal true N
overcast cool normal true P temperature
sunny mild high false N
sunny
rain
cool
mild
normal false
normal false
P
P
P(hot|p) = 2/9 P(hot|n) = 2/5
sunny
overcast
mild
mild
normal true
high true
P
P
P(mild|p) = 4/9 P(mild|n) = 2/5
overcast
rain
hot
mild
normal false
high true
P
N
P(cool|p) = 3/9 P(cool|n) = 1/5
humidity
P(high|p) = 3/9 P(high|n) = 4/5
P(p) = 9/14
P(normal|p) = P(normal|n) =
P(n) = 5/14 6/9 2/5
windy
P(true|p) = 3/9 P(true|n) = 3/5
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37
 Play-tennis example: classifying X
 An unseen sample X = <rain, hot, high, false>

 P(X|p)·P(p) =
P(rain|p)·P(hot|p)·P(high|p)·P(false|p)·P(p) =
3/9·2/9·3/9·6/9·9/14 = 0.010582
 P(X|n)·P(n) =
P(rain|n)·P(hot|n)·P(high|n)·P(false|n)·P(n) =
2/5·2/5·4/5·2/5·5/14 = 0.018286

 Sample X is classified in class n (don’t play)

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38

 The independence hypothesis…

 … makes computation possible

 … yields optimal classifiers when satisfied
 … but is seldom satisfied in practice, as attributes
(variables) are often correlated.
 Attempts to overcome this limitation:
 Bayesian networks, that combine Bayesian reasoning
with causal relationships between attributes
 Decision trees, that reason on one attribute at the
time, considering most important attributes first

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

 Bayesian Belief Networks (I)
Family
Smoker
History
(FH, S) (FH, ~S)(~FH, S) (~FH, ~S)

LC 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.1

LungCancer Emphysema ~LC 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.9

The conditional probability table

for the variable LungCancer
PositiveXRay Dyspnea

Bayesian Belief Networks

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40

 Bayesian Belief Networks (II)
 Bayesian belief network allows a subset of the variables
conditionally independent
 A graphical model of causal relationships
 Several cases of learning Bayesian belief networks
 Given both network structure and all the variables:
easy
 Given network structure but only some variables
 When the network structure is not known in advance

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42

 Neural Networks
 Advantages
 prediction accuracy is generally high

 robust, works when training examples contain errors

 output may be discrete, real-valued, or a vector of

several discrete or real-valued attributes

 fast evaluation of the learned target function

 Criticism
 long training time

 difficult to understand the learned function (weights)

 not easy to incorporate domain knowledge

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43

 A Neuron
- k
x0 w0
x1 w1
 f
output y
xn wn

Input weight weighted Activation

vector x vector w sum function
 The n-dimensional input vector x is mapped into variable y by
means of the scalar product and a nonlinear function mapping

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44

 Network Training

 The ultimate objective of training

 obtain a set of weights that makes almost all the

tuples in the training data classified correctly

 Steps
 Initialize weights with random values

 Feed the input tuples into the network one by one

 For each unit

 Compute the net input to the unit as a linear combination

of all the inputs to the unit
 Compute the output value using the activation function
 Compute the error
 Update the weights and the bias
 Multi-Layer Perceptron

Output vector
Err j  O j (1  O j ) Errk w jk
Output nodes k

 j   j  (l) Err j
wij  wij  (l ) Err j Oi
Hidden nodes Err j  O j (1  O j )(T j  O j )
wij 1
Oj  I j
1 e
Input nodes
I j   wij Oi   j
i

Input vector: xi
 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 48

 Association-Based Classification

 Several methods for association-based classification

 ARCS: Quantitative association mining and clustering

of association rules (Lent et al’97)

 It beats C4.5 in (mainly) scalability and also accuracy
 Associative classification: (Liu et al’98)
 It mines high support and high confidence rules in the form of
“cond_set => y”, where y is a class label
 CAEP (Classification by aggregating emerging patterns)
(Dong et al’99)
 Emerging patterns (EPs): the itemsets whose support
increases significantly from one class to another
 Mine Eps based on minimum support and growth rate

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50

 Other Classification Methods

 k-nearest neighbor classifier

 case-based reasoning
 Genetic algorithm
 Rough set approach
 Fuzzy set approaches

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 51

 Instance-Based Methods
 Instance-based learning:
 Store training examples and delay the processing

(“lazy evaluation”) until a new instance must be

classified
 Typical approaches
 k-nearest neighbor approach

 Instances represented as points in a Euclidean

space.
 Locally weighted regression

 Constructs local approximation

 Case-based reasoning

 Uses symbolic representations and knowledge-

based inference
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52
 The k-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm
 All instances correspond to points in the n-D space.
 The nearest neighbor are defined in terms of
Euclidean distance.
 The target function could be discrete- or real- valued.
 For discrete-valued, the k-NN returns the most
common value among the k training examples nearest
to xq.
 Vonoroi diagram: the decision surface induced by 1-
NN for a typical set of training examples.
_
_
_ _ .
+
_ .
+
xq + . . .
December 7, 2021
_ + .
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 53
 Discussion on the k-NN Algorithm
 The k-NN algorithm for continuous-valued target functions
 Calculate the mean values of the k nearest neighbors

 Distance-weighted nearest neighbor algorithm

 Weight the contribution of each of the k neighbors

according to their distance to the query point xq

giving greater weight to closer neighbors w 
 1
d ( x , x ) 2
 Similarly, for real-valued target functions q i
 Robust to noisy data by averaging k-nearest neighbors
 Curse of dimensionality: distance between neighbors could
be dominated by irrelevant attributes.
 To overcome it, axes stretch or elimination of the least

relevant attributes.
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 54
 Case-Based Reasoning
 Also uses: lazy evaluation + analyze similar instances
 Difference: Instances are not “points in a Euclidean space”
 Example: Water faucet problem in CADET (Sycara et al’92)
 Methodology
 Instances represented by rich symbolic descriptions

(e.g., function graphs)

 Multiple retrieved cases may be combined

 Tight coupling between case retrieval, knowledge-based

reasoning, and problem solving

 Research issues
 Indexing based on syntactic similarity measure, and

when failure, backtracking, and adapting to additional

cases
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 55
 Remarks on Lazy vs. Eager Learning
 Instance-based learning: lazy evaluation
 Decision-tree and Bayesian classification: eager evaluation
 Key differences
 Lazy method may consider query instance xq when deciding how to

generalize beyond the training data D

 Eager method cannot since they have already chosen global

approximation when seeing the query

 Efficiency: Lazy - less time training but more time predicting
 Accuracy
 Lazy method effectively uses a richer hypothesis space since it uses

many local linear functions to form its implicit global approximation

to the target function
 Eager: must commit to a single hypothesis that covers the entire

instance space
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 56
 Genetic Algorithms
 GA: based on an analogy to biological evolution
 Each rule is represented by a string of bits
 An initial population is created consisting of randomly
generated rules
 e.g., IF A and Not A then C can be encoded as 100
1 2 2

 Based on the notion of survival of the fittest, a new

population is formed to consists of the fittest rules and
their offsprings
 The fitness of a rule is represented by its classification
accuracy on a set of training examples
 Offsprings are generated by crossover and mutation

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 57

 Rough Set Approach
 Rough sets are used to approximately or “roughly”
define equivalent classes
 A rough set for a given class C is approximated by two
sets: a lower approximation (certain to be in C) and an
upper approximation (cannot be described as not
belonging to C)
 Finding the minimal subsets (reducts) of attributes (for
feature reduction) is NP-hard but a discernibility matrix
is used to reduce the computation intensity

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 58

 Fuzzy Set
Approaches

 Fuzzy logic uses truth values between 0.0 and 1.0 to

represent the degree of membership (such as using fuzzy
membership graph)
 Attribute values are converted to fuzzy values
 e.g., income is mapped into the discrete categories

{low, medium, high} with fuzzy values calculated

 For a given new sample, more than one fuzzy value may
apply
 Each applicable rule contributes a vote for membership in
the categories
 Typically, the truth values for each predicted category are
summed
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 59
 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 60

 What Is Prediction?

 Prediction is similar to classification

 First, construct a model
 Second, use model to predict unknown value
 Major method for prediction is regression
 Linear and multiple regression
 Non-linear regression
 Prediction is different from classification
 Classification refers to predict categorical class label
 Prediction models continuous-valued functions

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 61

 Predictive Modeling in Databases
 Predictive modeling: Predict data values or construct
generalized linear models based on the database data.
 One can only predict value ranges or category distributions
 Method outline:
 Minimal generalization
 Attribute relevance analysis
 Generalized linear model construction
 Prediction
 Determine the major factors which influence the prediction
 Data relevance analysis: uncertainty measurement,

entropy analysis, expert judgement, etc.

 Multi-level prediction: drill-down and roll-up analysis
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 62
 Regress Analysis and Log-Linear
Models in Prediction
 Linear regression: Y =  +  X
 Two parameters ,  and  specify the line and are to

be estimated by using the data at hand.

 using the least squares criterion to the known values

of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….

 Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
 Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the

above.
 Log-linear models:
 The multi-way table of joint probabilities is

approximated by a product of lower-order tables.

 Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 63

 Locally Weighted Regression
 Construct an explicit approximation to f over a local region
surrounding query instance xq.
 Locally weighted linear regression:
 The target function f is approximated near xq using the

linear function: f ( x)  w  w a ( x) wnan ( x)

0 11
 minimize the squared error: distance-decreasing weight K

E ( xq )  1  ( f ( x)  f ( x))2 K (d ( xq , x))
2 xk _nearest _neighbors_of _ x
 the gradient descent training rule: q

 w  
In most cases,
j  K (d (
the target function is approximated by axq , x ))(( f ( x )   ( x))a ( x)
f j
x k _ nearest _ neighbors_ of _ xq
constant, linear, or quadratic function.

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 64

 Prediction: Numerical Data

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 65

 Prediction: Categorical Data

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 66

 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 67

 Classification Accuracy: Estimating Error
Rates
 Partition: Training-and-testing
 use two independent data sets, e.g., training set
(2/3), test set(1/3)
 used for data set with large number of samples
 Cross-validation
 divide the data set into k subsamples
 use k-1 subsamples as training data and one sub-
sample as test data --- k-fold cross-validation
 for data set with moderate size
 Bootstrapping (leave-one-out)
 for small size data
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 68
 Boosting and Bagging

 Boosting increases classification accuracy

 Applicable to decision trees or Bayesian

classifier
 Learn a series of classifiers, where each
classifier in the series pays more attention to
the examples misclassified by its predecessor
 Boosting requires only linear time and
constant space

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 69

 Boosting Technique (II) — Algorithm

 Assign every example an equal weight 1/N

 For t = 1, 2, …, T Do
 Obtain a hypothesis (classifier) h(t) under w(t)

 Calculate the error of h(t) and re-weight the

examples based on the error

 Normalize w(t+1) to sum to 1

 Output a weighted sum of all the hypothesis,

with each hypothesis weighted according to its
accuracy on the training set
December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 70
 Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?

 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by backpropagation
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 71

 Summary

 Classification is an extensively studied problem (mainly in

statistics, machine learning & neural networks)
 Classification is probably one of the most widely used
data mining techniques with a lot of extensions
 Scalability is still an important issue for database
applications: thus combining classification with database
techniques should be a promising topic
 Research directions: classification of non-relational data,
e.g., text, spatial, multimedia, etc..

December 7, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 72