COMPUTER,
ROUTING PROTOCOLS COMMUNICATIONS AND
NETWORKING
ROUTER
A router is a device that determines the next network point to which a packet should
be forwarded towards its destination.
Allows different networks to communicate with each other.
A router creates and maintains a table of the available routes and their conditions
and uses this information to determine the best route for a given packet.
A packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving
at its destination.
There can be multiple routes defined. The route with a lower weight/metric will be
tried first.
ROUTING
Figure 1: Routing
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Routing tables are divided broadly into two categories:
Static Routing Tables:
Contain information entered manually.
Dynamic Routing Tables:
Updated periodically by using one of the dynamic routing protocols
such as RIP, OSPF or BGP.
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Figure 2: Routing Protocol Classification
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Routing protocols can be classified into different groups according to their
characteristics. Specifically, routing protocols can be classified by their:
Purpose: Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Operation: Distance vector protocol, link-state protocol, or path-vector protocol
Behavior: Classful (legacy) or classless protocol
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
For example, IPv4 routing protocols are classified as follows:
RIPv1 (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol
IGRP (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol developed by Cisco (deprecated from 12.2
IOS and later)
RIPv2: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol
EIGRP: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol developed by Cisco
OSPF: IGP, link-state, classless protocol
IS-IS: IGP, link-state, classless protocol
BGP: EGP, path-vector, classless protocol
The classful routing protocols, RIPv1 and IGRP, are legacy protocols and are only used in older
networks. These routing protocols have evolved into the classless routing protocols, RIPv2 and EIGRP,
respectively. Link-state routing protocols are classless by nature.
IGP AND EGP ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.2)
An autonomous system (AS) is a collection of routers under a common administration
such as a company or an organization. An AS is also known as a routing domain.
Typical examples of an AS are a company’s internal network and an ISP’s network.
The Internet is based on the AS concept; therefore, two types of routing protocols are
required:
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP): Used for routing within an AS. It is also referred to
as intra-AS routing. Companies, organizations, and even service providers use an IGP
on their internal networks. IGPs include RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, and IS-IS.
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP): Used for routing between autonomous systems. It is
also referred to as inter-AS routing. Service providers and large companies may
interconnect using an EGP. The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only currently
viable EGP and is the official routing protocol used by the Internet.
IGP AND EGP ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.2)
Figure 3: IGP versus EGP Routing Protocols
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.3)
Distance vector means that routes are advertised by providing two characteristics:
Distance: Identifies how far it is to the destination network and is based on a metric such as the
hop count, cost, bandwidth, delay, and more
Vector: Specifies the direction of the next-hop router or exit interface to reach the destination
A router using a distance vector routing protocol does not have the knowledge of the entire path to
a destination network. Distance vector protocols use routers as sign posts along the path to the final
destination. The only information a router knows about a remote network is the distance or metric to
reach that network and which path or interface to use to get there. Distance vector routing
protocols do not have an actual map of the network topology.
There are four distance vector IPv4 IGPs:
RIPv1: First generation legacy protocol
RIPv2: Simple distance vector routing protocol
IGRP: First generation Cisco proprietary protocol (obsolete and replaced by EIGRP)
EIGRP: Advanced version of distance vector routing
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.3)
Figure 3-11 The Meaning of Distance Vector
LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.4)
In contrast to distance vector routing protocol operation, a router configured with a link-state
routing protocol can create a complete view or topology of the network by gathering
information from all of the other routers.
To continue our analogy of sign posts, using a link-state routing protocol is like having a
complete map of the network topology. The sign posts along the way from source to
destination are not necessary, because all link-state routers are using an identical map of the
network. A link-state router uses the link-state information to create a topology map and to
select the best path to all destination networks in the topology.
RIP-enabled routers send periodic updates of their routing information to their neighbors. Link-
state routing protocols do not use periodic updates. After the network has converged, a link-
state update is only sent when there is a change in the topology.
There are two link-state IPv4 IGPs:
OSPF: Popular standards-based routing protocol
IS-IS: Popular in provider networks
LINK-STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (3.1.4.4)
Figure 3-12 Link-State Protocol Operation
ROUTING PROTOCOLS RIP, OSPF, BGP
Dynamic protocols
o Sharing neighborhood information
Use different metrics.
RIP (one hop count, how many networks a packet crosses), Networks are treated equally
BGP (depend on the policy, set by administrator)
OSPF (TOS, minimize delay, maximize throughput)
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL RFC 1058
• Receive a RIP message (a response)
• Add one hop for each advertised dest
• Repeat
• If (dest not in routing table)
• Add the advertised info to the
table
• Else
• If (next-hop is the same)
• Replace with the
advertised one
• Else
• If (advertised hop count <
one in the table)
• Replace entry in the
routing table
http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc1058.html • Return
Distance vector algorithm (Bellman-Ford)
Sharing knowledge about the entire AS
Shares only with neighbors
Shares at regular intervals (different from DVA)
INITIALIZING AND UPDATING ROUTING
TABLE
Destination Metric Gateway
Dest D G
Rule to implement RIP based in DVA
If Information is not from G
oUpdate to reflect minimum cost
If Information is from G
oAlways update
RIP messages uses UDP
datagrams on port 520
RIP MESSAGE FORMAT Implemented in Unix systems by the
‘routed’ daemon.
Size of datagram limited to 512
bytes (allow advertisement of 25
routes.
Command: 8 bits
Request (1), reply (2)
Version: 1 or 2
Family: of protocol used for
TCP/IP it is 2
Network address : 32 bytes
Distance: hop count from the
advertising router to the
destination network
Response: solicited or unsolicited.
RIP MESSAGE EXAMPLE
RIP TIMERS
Periodic timer: control advertising of regular update messages (25-35 sec)
Expiration timer: governs the validity of a route (180 sec)
Every time an update (on a 30 sec average) is received the timer is reset
If no update received within this timer the metric is set to 16
Garbage timer: 120 sec
A route can be advertised with a 16 metric for 120 sec before it get purged
Allow neighbors to have knowledge of the invalidity of a route
SLOW CONVERGENCE PROBLEM
Solved by limiting number of hops to 15, 16 means
That the destination is unreachable
RIP INSTABILITY
Triggered Updates
Split Horizons
Poison reverse
BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL (RFC 1771)
Based on the path vector routing.
Distance-vector protocol not preferred for inter-AS routing (exterior routing protocol)
Assumes all routers have a common distance metrics to judge route preferences.
If routers have different meanings of a metric, it may not be possible to create stable, loop free routes.
A given AS may have different priorities from another AS.
Gives no information about the ASs that will be visited.
Link-state routing protocol
Different metrics.
Flooding is not realistic.
Path vector routing
No metrics,
Information about which networks can be reached by a given router and ASs to be crossed.
Differs from DVA
Path vector approach does not include a distance or cost estimate
Lists all of the ASs visited to reach destination network.
BGP (CONTINUED)
Messages are sent over TCP connections on port 179.
Functional procedures
Neighbor acquisition (open message, acceptance through Keepalive message)
Neighbor reachability (periodic Keepalive messages)
Network reachability (broadcast an update message)
Each routers maintains a database of networks that can be reached
+ preferred route to this network.
RFC does not address
How a router knows the address of another router.
Up to network admin.
BGP (CONT.)
Example of Network Reachability Example of Message adverstisements
Network Next router Path
N1 R1 AS14,AS23,AS67
N2 R5 AS22,AS67,AS5,AS89
N3 R6 AS67,AS89,AS9,AS34
N4 R12 AS62,AS2,AS9
Loop Prevention in BGP:
Checks the Path before updating its
database. (If its AS is in the path ignore the
message)
Policy Routing:
If a path consist of an AS against the policy
of the current AS, message discarded.
BGP MESSAGE FORMAT (OPEN, KEEPALIVE,
UPDATE, NOTIFICATION)
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (RFC 1247)
Uses IP, has a value in the IP Header (8 bit protocol field)
Interior routing protocol, its domain is also an autonomous system
Special routers (autonomous system boundary routers) or backbone routers
responsible to dissipate information about other AS into the current system.
Divides an AS into areas
Metric based on type of service
Minimum delay (rtt), maximum throughput, reliability, etc..
OSPF (TYPE OF LINKS)
OSPF (LINK STATE ADVERTISEMENT)
Router Link Network Link
OSPF (LSA CONT.)
Summary link to Network
Summary link to AS boundary router
External Link
SHORTEST PATH CALCULATION
TYPES OF OSPF PACKETS AND HEADER
FORMAT
LINK STATE UPDATE PACKET
A ROUTER LINK EXAMPLE
LSA header not covered
Refer to RFC 1247
A NETWORK LINK EXAMPLE
SUMMARY LINKS STATE ADVERTISEMENTS
Summary link to network
Summary link to AS boundary
External Link
