EEEN202: ELECTRONICS, MEASUREMENT & TRANSDUCERS
1.4.2 Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors
• The number of bonds that are broken at room temperature is negligible as discussed
• So the induced current is very small (typically less than A)
• To increase the conductivity of semiconductors, small impurities are introduced into the
crystal by a process called “doping”.
• Conductivity of a semiconductor increases by the doping process.
• When impurities are added to a pure semiconductor, an impure (extrinsic) semiconductor is
formed.
• When doping material has more valence electrons than the original, it is called “donor”.
• But when it has less valence electrons, it is known as “acceptor”.
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• Group five elements are used as donors,
• While group three elements are used as acceptors.
• A semiconductor doped with donors has excess electrons and is called
n-type (negative) semiconductor (Electron are majority carriers and
holes as minority)
• And the one doped with acceptors has excess holes and is called p-type
(positive) semiconductor. (Holes are majority carriers and electrons as
majority)
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N-type Semiconductor
• Group five elements like phosphorus, arsenic, bismuth and antimony
are mostly used as donor impurities for doping.
• They share four of the valence electrons with the nearby atoms,
• While the fifth electron is free at room temperature.
• This electron needs small energy to go into the conduction band. This
is shown in Fig. 1.10(a).
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P-type Semiconductor
• Group three elements like boron, aluminum, gallium and indium are
common acceptor impurities used to create p-type semiconductors.
• The atom shares its three valence electrons with three out of the four
nearby silicon atoms, leaving a vacancy of hole in the structure
• This free hole that exists at room temperature is the charge carrier in
excess. This is illustrated in the Fig. 1.10(b).
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1.5 MASS-ACTION LAW AND CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
• The addition of n-type impurities increases the number of electrons
and decreases that of holes and vice versa for p-type impurities
used instead.
• Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of
the number of electrons and the number of holes is constant and is
independent of the amount of impurity (donor or acceptor)
introduced.
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• Eqns (E1.5 and E1.6) are concentrations of minority carriers in n-type
and p-type semiconductors
• They show that the minority carrier concentration depends on the
doping level of either the donor or acceptor.
• Small amount of doping affects only the electrical properties
• But not chemical and mechanical properties of the semiconductor.
• Intrinsic concentration at room temperature is n=p=ni = 1.6 x E16/m3
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1.6 TRANSPORTATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
• Drift and diffusion are two ways of current flow in semiconductors.
• At any temperature above zero, the atoms have kinetic energy that
causes their vibration.
• This leads to random movement of electrons which in turn gives rise
to current flow. The thermal speed of the carrier is:
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1.6.1 Drift in an Electric Field
• As electric field is applied across a substance, the equilibrium of the
lattice structure is disturbed.
• This accelerated movement of carriers
• This compliments the thermal movement due to rise in temperature
• The resultant effect of these two processes is called “drift”
• A condition is reached when the velocity becomes uniform.
• This uniform velocity is called a drift velocity which (V α field) and has a
direction opposite to that of electric field.
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The drift velocity is given by:
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1.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECT
• In a pure semiconductor resistance decreases with an increase in temperature because as
temperature increases, more electrons break their covalent bonds and become free for conduction.
• In pure metal with free electrons, temperature increases the vibration atoms which results in more
collisions by the drifting of electrons, thus increasing the resistance of the metal.
• As for extrinsic (impure) semiconductor, its conductivity increases with increase in temperature.
• At critical temperature the number of holes is almost equal to the number of electrons.
• At this point, the extrinsic semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor with very high
conductivity.
• This temperature is for silicon with energy requirement of 0.05eV and for germanium needing
0.01eV energy.
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PN JUNCTION (DIODES) DEVICES
2.1 FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION
• PN junction is a two-part of either pure silicon or germanium doped with impurities of group
five elements to form the n-type part another introduced with impurities of group three
elements to give a p-type part.
• These n-type and the p-type semiconductors are placed together to form a junction called PN-
junction as shown in Fig. 2.1.
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• When p-type and n-type materials are connected together Some of the free
electrons in the n-type material move to the p-type material across the junction
and meet the holes and combine with them.
• Similarly, free holes in the p-type material migrate across the junction to the n-
type material and combine with its electrons.
• Due to this charge redistribution by migration, the n-type material gets net
negative charge and the p-type material acquires net positive charge.
• These charges create an electric field (potential difference) between these two
materials which opposes any further movement of charges between them.
• This effect reduces the number of charge carriers near the junction and this
area is called ‘depletion region”.
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• This electric potential difference is shown in Fig. 2.2.
• In order to allow current flow (movement of charges) across the
junction, the level of the potential barrier must be reduced by
applying a voltage of proper polarity and enough magnitude across
the two materials.
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2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF DIODE
• A PN-junction diode is formed on a single piece of semiconductor material with one
side doped with p-type material and the other side with the n-type material. Silicon,
germanium, and gallium arsenide are the commonly used
• In the depletion region, there are few carriers due to electrons as the minority carriers
in the p-side and holes as the minority carriers in the n-side.
• These minority carriers will migrate across the junction and give rise to a current flow
known as “diffusion current, ”, which moves from p-side to n-side.
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• There is a current, due to drift of the minority carrier across the
junction.
• In open-circuit conditions, the diode diffusion current is equal to its
drift current but in opposite direction as shown in Fig. 2.3(a).
• Another characteristic of a PN junction diode is the ability to allow
the flow of current in one direction and blocks its flow in the
opposite direction.
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Forward Biased PN junction Diode
• If positive is applied to p and negative to n, the diode is forward-biased
• In this, holes are repelled from the applied positive and attracted to the opposite side
and vice versa for the majority carriers (electrons).
• Hence, electrons move toward the p-type material and holes diffuse to the n-type
material.
• The movement of charge carriers results in the reduction of the depletion region
greatly and brings about the flow of current in the same direction as holes movement
due to the reduction of the potential barrier, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3(b).
• The external electric field flows in the opposite direction of the current.
• The magnitude of this current depends on the magnitude of the applied voltage and is
given by: I = ID - IS
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Reverse-biased
• But if negative potential is applied to p-side and positive potential applied to n-
side, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
• In this, electrons are drawn from n material toward the right to the positive
applied terminal and holes are drawn to the left as shown in Fig. 2.3(c).
• The depletion region becomes wider with high potential difference and in this case
the diode is like an insulator due to its high resistance.
• Similarly, the equilibrium is disturbed and a small current, known as leakage or
reverse current flows across the junction from n-side to p-side.
• This is opposite to the forward bias current flow. It is not affected by the
magnitude of the barrier voltage but it is dependent on the temperature, type of
material and construction of the junction.
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2.2.2 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
• Fig. 2.4 shows this current and voltage relationship of the diode. VC
is the amount of voltage needed for the diode to start conducting
fully, while is a function of the doping geometry of the diode as
well as the temperature.
• To find the slope of the exponential curve at any fixed point on the
curve ID is differentiated with respect to VD.
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EEEN202: ELECTRONICS, MEASUREMENT & TRANSDUCERS
2.2.3 Operation of Diode
• The graph of Fig. 2.5 illustrates operation of silicon and germanium diodes.
• Current starts to flow at minimum voltages of 0.2V for Ge and 0.7V for Si
• Above this cut-in voltages current increases sharply along its exponential
path.
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• Avalanche Breakdown
• Minority carriers increases with reverse voltage. They collide with crystal ions creating
more mobile carriers.
• This result in very large current which breaks down the crystal structure itself.
• The process is called avalanche multiplication and occurs at knee voltage ( >5V).
• Zener Breakdown
• If reverse voltage is strong to tear electrons out of their bonds causing the generation of
more minority carriers which increase the reverse current (zener effect).
• The reverse voltage at which junction is destroyed is the zener breakdown voltage.
• It found to occur at electric field of about and at about ( <5V) for heavily doped junction.
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• The two breakdown effects may occur independently or together.
• Junctions that breakdown below 5V is caused by zener breakdown
effect and
• those above 5V are caused by avalanche effect.
• Hence, those which are destroyed at 5V are caused by a combination
of the two effects.
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2.2.4 Definition of some Terms
1. Diode Breakdown Voltage is the value of the applied reverse biased voltage at
which the junction of the diode is destroyed because it can no long contain the reverse
bias current.
2. Knee (Cut-in) Voltage is the forward voltage at which the current through the
junction starts to increase rapidly.
3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to
the PN junction without causing damage to the diode.
4. Maximum Forward Current is the maximum instantaneous forward current that a
PN-junction can withstand without destroying the junction.
5. Maximum Power Rating is the maximum power that the PN-junction can dissipate
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2.3 Applications of Diodes
Diode is used in circuits for:
1. waveform shaping,
2. switching and
3. logic circuits.
4. It is used in
5. TV sets
6. FM receivers
7. Amplifiers and different types of op-amps
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2.3.1 Voltage Rectification
There are two forms of rectification
1. Half Wave Rectification
This is the rectification process where the diode allows only positive
path of the AC signal to pass and blocks the negative path. This is
because the diode is forward biased and reserve biased by these two
waveforms. This type of rectification process is a achieved using one
diode as shown in Fig. 2.7(a).
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2. Full Wave Rectification
In full wave rectification, both positive and negative waveforms are passed in one direction since a
bridge rectifier or two diodes are used in the rectification process as shown in Fig. 2.8.
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2.3.2 Voltage Doubling
Diode is also used for doubling the level of a given voltage as shown in
Fig. 2.9.
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2.3.3 Diode as Clipper (also called limiters or amplitude selectors)
Clippers are diode circuits used to eliminate part of waveform that is above or below
a certain reference (predetermined) by selecting only that portion of the signal for
the purpose of transmission of message.
It uses a diode and a battery in series connected across the source.
Clipping circuits are used for purposes of transmission
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2.3.4 Diode as Clamper
• They are circuits used for shifting waveform of voltage by adding a
voltage source of either a constant nature time-varying function.
• The clamping network is the one that will "clamp" a signal to a different
dc level.
• The network must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element, but
it can employ an independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift.
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2.4 SCHOTTKY DIODE
• This is constructed by bonding a metal like platinium or aluminium to n-type
or p-type silicon as illustrated in Fig. 2.12.
• This diode is used in integrated circuit technology because it is easy to be
fabricated with other components on the chip.
• It is used in high frequency switching applications and power monitoring of
low-level radio frequencies as well as detecting high frequencies.
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2. 5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
• This is a diode that changes electric current into light energy.
• By falling of electron from conduction band into a hole and this results in the
release of a photon (light energy).
The LED emits light only when forward biased.
The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the magnitude of the
forward current flowing as shown in Fig
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• The applications of LED; Systems displays, optical fiber communications,
infrared remote control, security alarm systems and many more.
• SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY: SEVEN LEDs USED. SEE Fig. 2.15.
• For displaying numerical value of data from 0 – 9.
• All cathodes connected together to the ground and
• the anodes separately supplied with voltage to put on the desired LEDs
that will display a particular number.
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2.5.1 Two colours LED emitter
A diode can emit more than two colours in its operation. See Fig. 2.16.
Pins A and B are the anodes, while C is the cathode which is longer than the
others.
When the LED is biased by powering pins B and C, red light is emitted
but when pins A and C are powered the LED gives out green light.
There are also LEDs that emits many colour, that is, more than two in their
operation.
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2.6 PHOTO-DIODE
This accepts light energy as an input and changes it into electric current.
This diode performs the inverse operation of light emitting diode (LED).
• Reverse bias supply is applied to the photodiode where reverse saturation current
is controlled by the intensity of light that falls on the diode
• This light creates electron-hole pair that causes flow of current.
• This current (photo current) is proportional to the light intensity.
• It acts as a constant current generator, once the breakdown voltage is not
exceeded.
• The sensitivity of the diode to light is increased by making the junction area larger
for the collection of more photons.
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• 2.7 ZENER DIODE
• It has the characteristic of maintaining a fixed voltage level despite the
variations in the source voltage and the load current.
• It is a PN junction diode made by doping the material to produce very
steep breakdown (avalanche) voltage feature.
• This is to prevent the diode from being damaged even when the breakdown
voltage is exceeded.
• This condition holds only if the maximum rated current is not exceeded.
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• At breakdown creating the electron-hole pair which generates current that can
produce other electron-hole continuously. This is called zener breakdown.
• A lightly doped diode has higher zener breakdown voltage than the heavily doped
one.
• At zener breakdown voltage, the current keeps changing while voltage is almost
constant. The zener diode is therefore used as voltage reference for regulating the
voltage at predetermined maximum level.
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2.7.1 Zener Regulator
In the voltage regulation application, the zener diode is operated at its breakdown
region as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig. 2.19.
The circuit is connected to a variable load resistance and in practical application, the
voltage source, varies as well as the load current, .
The task of the design is to obtain the value of so as to maintain a constant voltage
output even when and change.
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