ELECTRONICS

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 Electronics
Definition – Study of motion of free
electrons in electrical circuits.
Applications – Calculators, clocks,
musical instruments, radios, Phones
TVs, computers, robots etc.
Classes of Material
 Conductors – has free electrons – not tightly
bound to the nucleus of the atom copper,
aluminium.
 Insulators-have immobile (fixed) electrons
 Semi-conductors – with conducting properties
between conductors and insulators silicon,
germanium.
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 The Energy Band Theory
• When two or more atoms are brought closer to
each other, the energy levels split into smaller
energy levels called bands. This is due to the
interaction of both electric and magnetic fields
of electrons
Types of bands
 Conduction band – electrons are free to move
under the influence of an electric current.
 Valence band – here electrons are not free to
move.
 Forbidden band/energy band – represents the
energy level that cannot be represented by
electrons. The width of the band determines
the conductivity of the material.
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 Conductors
 Conduction band – free
electrons.
 Valence band – unfilled,
few electrons.
 Has no forbidden band,
conduction and valence
band overlap.
 Resistance increases with
rise in temperature. A rise
in temperature increases
the vibrations of the atoms
and this interferes with the
electron flow. Hence the
resistance of a conductor
increases with
temperature.
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 Insulators
Conduction band –
has no electrons,
empty.
Valence band –
filled with
electrons.
Forbidden band –
has very wide gap
Temperature Wide gap

increase has no
effect on their
conductivity.
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 Semi-conductors
 Conduction band – empty
at O.K. Partially filled at
room temperature.
 Valence band –filled at
O.K; full of electrons at
very low temperatures
 Forbidden band – have
very narrow gap.
Resistance
reduces with rise
in temperature.

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 Semiconductors
 Increase in temperature increases the
chance of electrons moving from the
valence band to conduction band.
Electrical resistance therefore reduces
because the total current flow is due to
the flow of electrons and holes. Have
negative temperature coefficient of
resistance
 At room temperature: - Has holes in the valence
band & free electrons in the conduction band. At
0 K it behaves like an insulator.
 HOLES: Holes are created when an electron
moves from valence band to conduction band.
 Holes are very important for conduction of
electric current
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 Intrinsic semi-conductors
• They are pure semi-conductors and has
electrical properties of a pure
substance.
• Has equal number of electrons and holes.
• Conductivity is very low, insulator at low
temperatures.
• Usually not used in a pure state e.g. silicon,
Germanium

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Extrinsic semi- conductors
• Extrinsic semiconductors are impure
semiconductors
• With added impurities to improve its electrical
properties .
• All semi-conductors in practical use has added
impurities
• Doping: A process of adding a very small
quantity of impurities to a pure semi-
conductor to enhance its conductivity.
• It is done by introducing an impurity atom into
the lattice of a pure semi-conductor.
• Extrinsic semiconductors are made by adding a
controlled amount of different element to an
intrinsic semi-conductor.
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 Two types of extrinsic semi-
conductors – formed by
• N – Type semi-conductor
doping a group 4 element with a Group
5 element.
• P – Type semi-conductor – formed by
doping a group 4 element with a group
3 element.
• Group 4 elements – Tetravalent – Silicon,
germanium, etc
• Group 5 elements – Pentavalent –
doping element, donor impurity –
phosphorous, antimony.
• Group 3 elements – Trivalent – boron,
aluminium and indium
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 N-Type Semi –Conductor
• Formed by adding a Pentavalent atom
(Phosphorus) to a group 4 semi-
conductor (Silicon) and an extra electron is
left unpaired and is available for conduction.
• Majority charge carriers are electrons;
minority charge carriers are positive holes.
• Phosphorous is called a DONOR ATOM. Silicon
has now more electrons
Free electron

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 P-Type Semi –Conductor
• Formed by adding a trivalent atom (Boron) to a
group 4 atom (Silicon), a fourth electron will be
unpaired and a gap will be left called a positive hole.
• Pure semi-conductor is doped with impurity of group
3 element; combination creates a positive hole which
accepts an electron.
• The doping material creates a positive hole, which can
accept an electron called an Acceptor.
Incomplete
bond

Trivalent
impurity

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 P-N Junction Diodes(Junction
Diodes)
• It is an electronic device with two electrodes,
which allows current to flow in one direction
only.
• It is an electrical one way valve.
Formation of P-N Junction Diode
• It consists a p-side connected to the Anode and the
n-side to the cathode.
• Formed by doping simultaneously with
P-n junction
pentavalent and trivalent atoms.Circuit symbol

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P-N Junction Diodes (Junction
Depletion Layer
Diodes)
• The place (boundary) between two different types of
semi-conductors.
• The region between the p-type and n-type semi-
conductor which conducts very poorly.
• At the junction electrons diffuse from both sides and
neutralize each other.
• A narrow depletion layer if formed on either side of the
junction.

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 Forward Bias
• A diode is forward biased when the cathode is
connected to n-side and anode to the p-side in
a circuit.
• In forward bias, the depletion layer is narrowed and
resistance is reduced.
• It allows holes to flow to n-side and electrons to p-side.
• The majority charge carriers cross the junction. It
conducts
narrow current and the bulb lights

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 Reverse Bias
• A diode is reverse biased when the cathode is
connected to p-side and anode to the n-side in
a circuit.
• The current through the diode is virtually zero. It hardly
conducts, the bulb does not light. Electrons and holes
are pulled away from the depletion layer, making it
wider.
• The electrons and holes are attracted to opposite ends
of the diode away from the junction. The wider the
depletion layer, the higher the resistance of
the junction.

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 Forward Biasing
Characteristics
• The circuit below shows how the connections are made.

Breakdown voltage

• The characteristic graph of current, I against reverse bias voltage is

obtained as shown below. The curve is non-ohmic.it is non-linear.
The current increases exponentially with voltage up to a point
where a sharp increase in current is noticed.
• As voltage increases it reaches a voltage called
threshold/cut-in/breakpoint voltage. At this voltage
potential the barrier is overcome by bias and charges
easily flow across
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 Reverse Biasing
• In Characteristics
reverse biasing, resistance is very high,
however, the flow of leakage current results
from flow of minority charge carriers. At
breakdown voltage or Zener breakdown
covalent bonds rapture liberating electrons.
Those electrons collide with some atoms
causing ionisation this is called avalanche
breakdown. The two processes produce excess
electrons for heavy conduction. Beyond
breakdown voltage a diode is damaged.

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 The Zener Diode
• A zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi-
conductor, which is designed to work in
reverse biased connection.
Principle of operation
• When the reverse-bias of the diode is increased,
a large sudden increase in current is obtained at
one particular reverse voltage.
• At the reverse voltage, the p-n junction diode
breaks down into a conductor, by breaking down
the barrier layer.
• The breakdown of the p-n junction diode is
known as zener breakdown or zener effect.
• The characteristic is almost a vertical line, i.e.
the zener current, which occur as a result of the
zener voltage.
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 Applications of diodes
Application of zener Diodes
• Used in industry as voltage regulators
or stabilizers, by providing a constant
voltage to a load.
• Voltage remains constant as current
increases.
Application of P-N Junction Diodes
 To protect equipment, circuits or
devices by a reverse power supply.
 To rectify ac to dc
 Enable the Audio Frequency energy
carrier by modulated radio waves to be
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 Rectification using P-n
Definition Junction
• Rectification is the process of
converting a.c current to d.c current.
• A Rectifier is a device that changes a.c to d.c.
Reasons for rectification
• The conversion of a.c. to d.c. is often necessary for
all electric equipment, such as radios, T.V. sets,
computers, musical instruments, e.t.c, use steady
d.c.
Types of rectification
• There are two types of rectification,
namely:-
• Half-wave rectification
• Full-wave
Preparedrectification.
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 Half-wave rectification and
• smoothing
One diode is used which
removes the negative
half-wave cycle of the
applied a.c.
• It gives a varying but
one-way direct current
across the load R.
• R is a piece of electronic
equipment requiring a
d.c. supply.
• If the Y-input terminals
of a CRO are connected
first across the out put,
the waveform will be
displayed on the screen.
• When a CRO is
connected across R, the
output waveform is seen
to be positive half-wave
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 Using Centre-Tap Transformer
• In a full-wave rectifier, both halves of the a.c. cycles are
transmitted but in the direction, i.e. same side.

Or

During the first half-cycle, when A is positive, DI conducts

through the load R at the same time B is negative with
respect to T, so no current flows in the diode D2.
In the next half-cycle when B is positive, D2 conducts
through the load R in the same direction as before. A is
positive with respect to T so no current flows in D1.
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 Using the bridge Rectifier
• ( four
During the negative halfdiodes)
cycle

•
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 Using the bridge Rectifier
( fourhalf
uring the positive diodes)
cycle

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 Using the bridge Rectifier ( four
diodes)
Advantages of bridge rectifier
 A smaller transformer can be used because
there is no need for centre -tapping.
 It is suitable for high voltage regulation.
Smoothening of bridge
rectifier
The smoothing capacitor
provides extra charge so
that current flows
continuously even as the
phase current changes
and the current go to
zero.
The larger the
capacitor, the better
the smoothing.
The charge-storing
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