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Electronics
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Chapter Overview
Band theory of solids including conduction band, valence band and
forbidden energy gap.

Difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator on bases of

band theory.

Semiconductor and its types.

Doping and its types.

Diode and PN Junction in diode.

Biasing, its types.

Cut-in voltage and its value for Silicon and Germanium.

Rectification and its types.

Concepts
Band theory of solids
According to the band theory of atomic structure, the electrons in an atom
can occupy only allowed energy levels ( allowed energy levels are those for
h
which angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of 2π ). The
​

lowest available energy level is called ground state of the atom, whereas the
higher levels are called excited states.
In a solid, atoms are very close to each other so that their outermost orbits
overlap and spread into energy bands. These energy bands are of two
types:

Electronics 1
 1. Valence band: Corresponds to the ground state of the atoms. Electrons
of the outermost orbits are usually found in the valence band where
they are firmly held to the individual atoms. It is the lowest available
energy band.

2. Conduction Band: The energy band, having, next permitted energy

band i.e., next to the valence band is called conduction band. This band
is occupied by conduction electrons or free electron. It is the uppermost
band of the atoms.

In between the Valence and the Conduction band is a Forbidden Energy

Band. It is the energy difference between the highest occupied energy state
of the valence band and the lowest unoccupied state of the conduction
band. It is also called ‘Band Gap’.

Types of Solids based on Band Theory :

Conductors: In conductors the valence band overlaps the conduction band
and the forbidden gap does not exist. Under these conditions the electrons
can freely move when an electric field is applied. Conductors have very low
resistance.

Conductors are materials with high conductivities, greater than

103 S/cm, (like silver: 106 , S/cm).
No forbidden energy gap exist.

Have no physical distinction between two bands.

Large number of free electrons remains available.

Have positive temperature coefficient.

Electronics 2
 Insulators: In insulator, the valence band is completely filled by electrons
but conduction band is empty. The two are separated by a large forbidden
energy gap. Under this condition electrons cannot move freely from valence
to conduction band. hence current cannot be passed through these
materials. Insulators have high resistance.

Insulators are materials having an electrical conductivity less than

10−8 S/cm(like diamond: 10−16 S/cm).
Insulators have a large forbidden energy gap (> 5eV) between valence
and conduction band.

Have an empty conduction band.

Have full valence band.

Have negative temperature coefficient.

Electronics 3
 Semiconductor:

In Semiconductor the forbidden gap between conduction and valence band

is narrow and on applying small amount of energy, electrons can jump from
valence band to conduction band.

Semiconductors have a conductivity between 10−8 S/cmand

103 S/cm(for silicon it can range from 10−5 S/cm to 103 S/cm).
Semiconductors have very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV)
separating the two bands.

Partially filled conduction band.

Partially filled valence band.

Have negative temperature coefficient.

Electronics 4
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials in which there is a medium or narrow
forbidden gap between the valence and conduction bands.

Relationship Between the Resistance and Temperature of

Semiconductors
In a pure semiconductor only a few electrons have the energy to jump from
the valence band to the conduction band. So there is low electrical
conductivity. If the temperature is raised, more electrons will have enough
energy to jump the gap, which decreases resistance. In a doped
semiconductor, the impurity provides additional energy states between the
bands thus increasing the electrical conductivity.

Intrinsic semiconductors

These semiconductors are pure in composition and do not have any

impurities.

They can also termed as ‘un-doped semiconductors’.

Group-IV elements are generally ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. e.g. Si, Ge.

At room temperature they behave like insulator.

Free electrons are generated thermally. In intrinsic semiconductor

number of free electrons and number of holes is equal, np = ne .
​ ​

Electronics 5
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Impure or doped semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors.

These semiconductors are impure due to ‘doping’ with certain

impurities to change electrical conductivity.

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

i) P-type semiconductor.

ii) N-type semiconductor.

Doping
The process of mixing of elements of Group III-A (trivalent) or Group V-A
(pentavalent) of the periodic table with the crystals of silicon or germanium
to increase its conductivity is called ‘Doping’ .

OR
Addition of an element of group III-A or V-A into Ge or Si crystals to convert
them into semiconductor substance is called Doping. Normally impurity is in
very small quantity.
There are two methods of doping,

1. Donor Doping (N-type)

Electronics 6
 2. Acceptor Doping (P- type)

1. Donor Doping

When a semiconductor is doped with an element of group V-A (Pentavalent)

such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorous and excess electron from the
doping material is available for conduction. The doping material is called
donor impurity. This kind of doping produces an n-type semiconductor. It is
called n-type because there is an excess of negative electrons in it. In n-
type semiconductors the current is due to the flow of ‘electrons’.

2. Acceptor Doping:

When a semiconductor is doped with a group III-A (Trivalent) element , a

deficiency of electron is produced. The deficiency of electrons corresponds
to a positively charged region which is called a ‘hole’ (hole refers to vacant
space of electron). The semiconductor thus become capable of accepting
extra electrons. This kind of doping produces p-type semiconductor. It is
called p-type because there is deficiency of electron in it. In p-type
semiconductors the charge carriers are ‘holes’.

The deficiency of electrons corresponds to a positively charged region

which is called a ‘hole’.

Electronics 7
 P-N junction or a semiconductor diode
Semiconductor Diode

When a p-type semi-conductor wafer is placed in contact with an n-type

semi-conductor wafer, then the electronic device thus formed because of
this combination is called a diode. Such a diode is also known as p-n
junction diode. Symbolically it is represented by:

Electronics 8
 Diode use as switch in electronics circuits. It allows the current to flow
only in one direction, the resistance offered by a diode in one direction
is almost “0”. However in the other direction the resistance is
significantly high. This is why the diode under normal condition allows
the current to flow only in one direction.

Diode also use in rectification.

PN Junction In Diode:

At the junction, the surplus electrons present in the n-side of the diode
are attracted by the neighboring holes present next to the junction on
the p-side of the diode. Thus, forming a neutral region at the junction
called “depletion region”.

It is the depletion region which acts as a barrier to the input voltage and
causes the input voltage to drop across a diode (voltage drop across a
diode varies from 0.1- 0.7 V). This region is also known as “potential
barrier”.
Biasing
Biasing is defined as an arrangement made in the diode or an electrical
device to allow a larger flow of current in a certain direction. Usually, a
diode can be connected to a source in different ways:

Electronics 9
 1. Forward biased mode

2. Reverse biased mode

1. Forward Biasing :

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side of a

diode then such a mode of operation of diode is known as forward biased
mode of operation. A diode in this mode of operation is called ‘forward
biased’ diode and allows the flow of electronic charged through it.

In this case, the width of the depletion region decreases, and the height
of the barrier gets reduced.

Wen energy is sufficient to overcome potential barrier, current of order

of few milliamperes begin to flow.

When a PN junction is forward biased it offers low resistance.

Electronics 10
 If forward bias voltage increase by ∆Vf , the current increases by ∆If .
​ ​

The ratio ∆Vf /∆If is called ‘Forward resistance’ of PN junction.

​ ​

rf = ∆Vf /∆If 
​ ​ ​

Cut-in Voltage:

It is a forward voltage at which current in PN junction starts to flow.

It is the voltage at which the diode begins to allow current to flow

through it.

It is also called ‘Knee Voltage’ or ‘threshold voltage’.

Cut-in voltage for silicon diode = 0.7 V

Cut-in voltage for Germanium diode = 0.3 V

2. Reverse Biasing :

When the N-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the P-side of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery, then such a mode of operation of diode is known as reverse
biased mode of operation. Theoretically, a diode does not allow current to
flow through it in this mode of operation. Practically, some current flows in
the circuit when a diode is reverse biased and applied potential is high.

In reverse bias the width of depletion region increases.

Electronics 11
 When a p-n junction is reverse biased it offers high resistance, of the
order of Megaohms.

No current flows due to majority charge carriers.

In reverse bias a very small current of the order of few microamperes

flows due to flow of minority charge carriers. It is called ‘reverse
current’ or ‘leakage current’.

At very high reverse voltage ‘breakdown region’ attained and current

due to minority carriers increase sharply. This current is called
‘breakdown avalanche current’.
Rectification
Rectification
The process of converting Alternating Current or Voltage into Direct Current
or Voltage is called rectification.

Rectifier
A device that can perform rectification is called a rectifier.
A semiconductor diode (p-n junction) can act as a rectifier.

Half-Wave Rectification :

It is a process of converting AC into Half wave DC.

A single diode can be used for half wave rectification.

Electronics 12
 For a diode to function as a half-wave rectifier it is connected to an AC
source.
For the positive cycle of the alternating input. Diode will be in forward
biased mode of operation. Since P-side of the diode is connected to the
positive side of the source. Thus, allowing the input to be rectified at the
load. For the negative half cycle of the alternating input, diode will be in
reverse biased mode of operation and thus blocking the input to appear at
the output.

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 Since, this arrangement of diode is rectifying the negative half of the input
wave this is why it is known as half wave rectifier.

The output frequency and input frequency for half wave rectifiers is the
same because it allows one half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to
pass.

Full-wave Rectification :
It is a process of converting AC into Full wave DC.

Combination of two or four diodes can be used for full wave

rectification.

Electronics 14
 A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle
of alternating current into pulsating DC. Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize
only the halfwave of the input AC cycle, full wave rectifiers utilize the full
cycle.

Significant power is lost while using a half-wave rectifier and is not feasible
for applications that need a smooth and steady supply. For a more smooth
and steady supply, we use the full wave rectifiers.

Electronics 15
 During the positive half cycle, diodeD1 is forward biased as it is connected
​

to the top of the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is
​

connected to the bottom of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 ​

will conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an
​

open circuit
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode
​

D2 is forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit
​

becomes negative and the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus
in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and
negative half cycle.

The output frequency of full wave rectifier is twice to that of input

frequency.

The output voltage is not smooth but pulsating. It can be made smooth
by using circuit known as ‘filters’.

Questions
1. A P-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding:
a) Arsenic to pure silicon b) Gallium to pure silicon

c) Antimony to pure germanium d) Phosphorous to pure

germanium

Electronics 16
 2. The valence of the impurity atom that is to be added to germanium crystal
so as to make it a N-type semiconductor, is :

a) 6 b) 5
c) 4 d) 3

3. When the electrical conductivity of a semi-conductor is due to the breaking

of its covalent bonds, then the semiconductor is said to be:

a) Donor b) Acceptor
c) Intrinsic d) Extrinsic

4. In an insulator, the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and
conduction band is of the order of :
a) 1 MeV b) 0.1MeV

c) <1eV d) >5 eV

5. The forbidden energy band gap in conductors, semiconductors and

insulators are EG1 , EG2 and EG3 respectively. The relation among them
​ ​ ​

is:

a) EG1 < EG2 <EG3 

​ ​ ​ b) EG1 = EG2 =EG3 
​ ​

c) EG1 > EG2 >EG3 

​ ​ ​ d) EG1 < EG2 >EG3 
​ ​ ​

6. The forbidden gap in the energy bands of germanium at room temperature

is about :
a) 1.1eV b) 0.1eV
c) 0.67eV d) 6.7eV

7. At zero Kelvin a piece of germanium :

a) Becomes semiconductor b) Becomes good conductor

c) Becomes bad conductor d) Has maximum conductivity

8. Donor type impurity is found in:

a) Pentavalent elements b) Trivalent elements
c) In both the above d) None of these

9. Which of the following has negative temperature coefficient of resistance:

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 a) Copper b) Aluminum

c) Iron d) Germanium

10. Regarding a semiconductor which one of the following is wrong :

a) There are no free electrons at room temperature
b) There are no free electrons at 0 K

c) The number of free electrons increases with rise of temperature

d) The charge carriers are electrons and holes

11. The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. The maximum wavelength at which
silicon will begin absorbing energy is :

a) 10888 Å b) 1088.8 Å

c) 108.88 Å d) 10.888 Å

12. The electrical circuit used to get smooth DC output from a rectifier circuit is
called :
a) Oscillator b) Filter

c) Amplifier d) Logic gates

13. The PN junction diode is used as :

a) An amplifier b) A rectifier
c) An oscillator d) A modulator

14. In P-N junction, avalanche current flows in circuit when biasing is:
a) Forward b) Zero
c) Reverse d) Excess

15. The depletion layer in the P-N junction region is caused by :

a) Drift of holes b) Drift of electrons
c) Migration of impurity ions d) Diffusion of charge carriers

16. Function of rectifier is :

a) To convert AC into DC b) To convert DC into AC

c) Both (a) and (b) d) None of these

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 17. On adjusting the P-N junction diode in forward biased:

a) Depletion layer increases b) Resistance increases

c) Both decreases d) None of these

18. Serious draw back of the semiconductor device is :

a) They cannot be used with high voltage

b) They pollute the environment

c) They are costly
d) They do not last for long time

19. Select the correct statement :

a) In a full wave rectifier, two diodes work alternately

b) In a full wave rectifier, two diodes work simultaneously
c) The efficiency of full wave and half wave rectifiers is same
d) The full wave rectifier is bi-directional

20. Symbolic representation of photodiode is :

Answer Key:

1 b 11 a

2 b 12 b

3 c 13 b

4 d 14 c

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 5 a 15 d

6 c 16 a

7 c 17 c

8 a 18 a

9 d 19 a

10 a 20 c

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Electronics 20