2

The Systematic Process of

Research

 Formulation of the  Reviewing Literature

Research problem   Designing the study
 Determining /recognizing a  Developing instrument for
research problem
collecting data
 Defining the research
problem  Collecting data
 Sources of research problem  Analyzing the data
 Guidelines for the statement  Determining the
of the problem implications & findings
 Formulating a hypothesis/  Making recommendations
research question
 Process of testing hypothesis
2.1 Research process overview

Formulate
Review Formulate
Research
Literature Hypothesis
Problem

Design
Analyze data Collect Data
Research

Interpret &
Report

2
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.1 Recognizing a Research Problem

 There are two types of research problems

a. those which relate to states of nature

b. those which relate to relationships between variables

 At the very outset, the researcher must single out the

problem he/she wants to study

 he/she must decide the general area of interest or

aspect of a subject-matter that he/she would like to
inquire into

3
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.1 Recognizing a Research Problem

 A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so

that it becomes susceptible to research
 Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms concerning a problem before he can diagnose
correctly

 Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the

research problem
 understanding the problem thoroughly(discuss with one’s own
colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter)
 rephrasing the same into meaningful terms

4
2.2 Formulating the research problem
2.2.2 Defining the Research Problem

 In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be

that of selecting and properly defining a research problem

 A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher

experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution

 Conditions for a research problems to exist

 There must be an individual (or a group or an organization) facing the
difficulty
 There must be means/ courses of action
 There must be objectives/ possible outcomes to obtained
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher
 The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the
objective
5
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.2 Defining the Research Problem

 Need for defining a research problem
A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved

 The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for

that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones

 A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher

to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create
hurdles

 Find answers to the questions & no doubt crop up in the mind of

researcher

 Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any

study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation
of a problem is often more essential than its solution 6
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.2 Defining the Research Problem

 Guidelines for the statement of the problem

 Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a

crucial part of a research study and must in no case be

accomplished hurriedly

 However, in practice this frequently overlooked which

causes a lot of problems later on

7
2.2 Formulating the research problem
Guidelines for the statement of the problem
The technique for defining research problem involves the following
steps:

statement of the understanding surveying the

1 problem in a 2 the nature of the 3 available
general way problem literature

4
rephrasing the
developing the
research problem
ideas through
into a working 5
discussions
proposition

8
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.3 Sources of Research Problem

“How do I find a research problem?”

 Although there are no set rules for locating a problem

 Three important sources

 Experience

 deductions from theory

 related literature

9
 2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.3 Sources of Research Problem

 Experience
 Among the most fruitful sources for beginning researchers are
their own experiences as practitioners
 Theory
 Theories are a good source of problems for research
 Which theories: characteristics of good theory?
o Testable
o Falsifiable
o with some significant phenomenon or behavior that needs
explanation
o provides the simplest, clearest, and most plausible explanation for
the phenomenon
o has internal consistency; its propositions do not contradict one
another 10
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.3 Sources of Research Problem

 Related literature

 Another valuable source of problems is the published

literature in your area of interest

 A review of related literature may help in the following

ways:

o You may find a study that needs to be replicated

o You may find a question that represents the next logical

step in the research on a problem

11
Individual assignment 1

Cost of service in Ethiopia

 Instruction
Define clearly the research problem
showing each of the five steps on the
basis of the problem stated

12
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Ordinarily, hypothesis means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved
 But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question
that he intends to resolve/answer
 Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some
dependent variable
 Examples:
 Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in
creativity than students not receiving counseling
 The automobile A is performing as well as automobile B

13
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 simply an educated—and testable—guess about the
answer to your research question.
 often described as an attempt by the researcher to
explain the phenomenon of interest.
 A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must
make a prediction.
 These predictions are then tested by gathering and
analyzing data, and the hypotheses can either be
supported or refuted

14
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Characteristics of hypothesis: hypothesis should (be):
 clear and precise
 capable of being tested
 state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a
relational hypothesis
 limited in scope and must be specific
 stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned
 consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent
with a substantial body of established facts
 amenable to testing within a reasonable time
 explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation

15
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Null hypothesis(Ho) and alternative hypothesis(Ha)
 Null hypothesis is the hypothesis initially supposed
where as alternative hypothesis is the set of
alternatives to the null hypothesis
 If we are to compare method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both
methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as
the null hypothesis
 As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or
the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as
alternative hypothesis

16
 2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Null hypothesis(Ho) and alternative hypothesis(Ha)
 In research studies involving two groups of participants (e.g.,
experimental group vs. control group), the null hypothesis always
predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being
studied (Kazdin, 1992).
 If, however, a particular research study does not involve groups of
study participants, but instead involves only an examination of
selected variables, the null hypothesis predicts that there will be no
relationship between the variables being studied.
 By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will
be a difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship
between the variables being studied).

17
 2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Null hypothesis(Ho) and alternative hypothesis(Ha)
 In a research study investigating the effects of a newly developed
medication on blood pressure levels, the null hypothesis would
predict that there will be no difference in terms of blood pressure
levels between the group that receives the medication (i.e., the
experimental group) and the group that does not receive the
medication (i.e., the control group).
 By contrast, the alternate hypothesis would predict that there will be
a difference between the two groups with respect to blood pressure
levels. So, for example, the alternate hypothesis may predict that
the group that receives the new medication will experience a greater
reduction in blood pressure levels than the group that does not
receive the new medication.

18
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 The level of significance
 Significance level is the maximum value of the probability of
rejecting H0 when it is true
 the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is
willing to take as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true
 Type I() and Type II() errors
 Type I error
 reject H0 when H0 is true
 error means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted
 Type II error
 accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true
 accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.
19
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and one-tailed tests
 A two-tailed test is appropriate when the null
hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative
hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of
the null hypothesis
 A two-tailed test will test both if the sample mean is
significantly greater than given value x and if the mean
significantly less than x.
 there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the
curve
 If 5% significance level in the two-tailed test is to be
applied, the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05
20
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and One-tailed tests

 One-tailed test is appropriate when we are to test, say,

whether the population mean is either lower than or
higher than some hypothesized value

 A one-tailed test will test either if the mean is

significantly greater than x or if the mean is significantly
less than x, but not both.

21
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and One-tailed tests

22
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.4 Formulating a research hypothesis

 Process of testing a hypothesis

1. Making a formal statement

2. Selecting a significance level

3. Deciding the distribution to use

4. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate

value

5. Calculation of the probability

6. Comparing the probability

23
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.5 Formulating research questions

 Research question simply means putting research
objectives in question form
 Criteria of good research question
 What aspect of the more general topic you will explore?
 Is your research question clear?
 Is your research question focused?
 Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the
space available
 Is your research question complex?
 Questions shouldn’t have a simple yes/no answer and should require
research and analysis
 Ask open-ended “how” and “why” questions
 Consider the “so what” of your topic

24
2.2 Formulating the research problem

2.2.5 Formulating research questions

 Is your research question clear?
 Why are social networking sites harmful?
 How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on
social networking sites like MySpace and Face book?
 Is your research question focused?
 What is the effect on the environment from global
warming?
 How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?
 Is your research question complex?
 How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?
 What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in
America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the
medical community in prevention of the disease?

25
Individual class assignment 1

1. Develop the null hypothesis and 3 alternative

hypotheses based on the issue stated below

“Industry average of Inventory Turn Over, 2.5”

2. Develop the research question form of the hypothesis
3. Fill the box with the correct word of correct decision,
alpha error & beta error

Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) 1 2
H0 (false) 3 4
26
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.1 Extensive literature survey

 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down

 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and

published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to

 Academic journals, conference proceedings, government

reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another

27
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.2 What Is a Literature Review?

 Reviewing the literature is not a compartmentalized stage of

research. Instead, the researcher constantly reviews the
literature until the day the project is submitted

 It is a critical, analytical summary and synthesis of the

current knowledge of a topic

 It should compare and relate different theories, findings,

etc, rather than just summarize them individually

 It should have a particular focus or theme to organize the

review
28
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.2 What Is a Literature Review?

 It should discuss all the significant academic literature

important for that focus

 It should not be a chronological listing of previous work,

 Literature reviews are organized thematically based on:

 Different theoretical approaches,

 Methodologies, or specific issues or concepts involved in the topic

29
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.3 Types of literature

 the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and

theories

 the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier

which are similar to the one proposed

30
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.4 Advantages of Literature Review

 Focus and clarify our research problem
 To avoid duplications
 To give credit for those who have laid the foundation for the field of
study
 Assist in identifying ‘gaps’ in research
 To define the boundaries of our field of research
 Assist in the choice of the approaches, methods, procedures and
instruments to be used
 highlight the key debates, terms and concepts employed your topic
area
 To learn from the successes and failures of others
Important saying explained as “a wise man learns from the failures
of others, whereas, a foolish man learns from his own failures.” 

31
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.5 Problems of Literature Review

 Lack of organization or structure: literature has to have a format and
organization.
 Lack of focus and coherent: do not diffuse issues; rather try to focus on major
problems.
 Is being repetitive and verbose: don’t use many words unnecessary;
sometimes it is a tendency to hide weaknesses.
 Failing to cite influential papers: missing to cite those papers that contribute
much in field.
 Failing to keep up recent documents: citing old literatures
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers: failing to explain, interpret and
comment on
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references: citing literatures of little value rather
than those have major contribution to the problem. Example, News papers,
magazines etc.
 Depending too much on secondary sources: usually a tendency of citing a
citation of citation. We usually cite some body as cited in some body. But it is not
totally prohibited; do not use over and over again.

32
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.6 Processes in reviewing literature

 Identifying the relevant literature: in identifying the
relevant literature find/compile the key words of the topic or
the problem.
 Read the literature: the following steps can help you to
decide what to read.
 Check for the preliminary sources such as indices, dissertations,
abstracts, encyclopedia, articles, journals, books, etc.
 Prepare a bibliography of primary and secondary sources
 Read the sources by taking paraphrased notes – writing notes on
your own words
 Avoid the use of many quotations and plagiarisms
 Select the grain from the chaff/joke/make fun
 analyzing and interpreting the notes from different
literatures
33
2.3 Reviewing related literature
2.3.6 Organization of the literature review
  The specific organization of a literature review depends on the
type and purpose of the review, as well as on the specific
field or topic being reviewed. But in general, it is a relatively
brief but thorough exploration of past and current work on a
topic.
 There are three components in the organization of the
literature review.
1. Introduction:
 Is a general review or statement helping the reader to enter discussion.
 define and identify the general issues to provide the context for the review;
 point out over all trends, conflicts in theory, methodology, evidences,
conclusions, gaps, etc;
 establish the reviewers point of view for reviewing the literature;
 Explain the criteria for analysis, comparison, organization and sequence,

34
2.3 Reviewing related literature
2.3.6 Organization of the literature review
2. Body:
In this component the literature review, we can group literatures in to three ways.
 Review of books, theoretical articles and case-studies: is one way of categorizing the
body of the literature review. Books, articles and case-studies are grouped together with their
respective categories.
 Qualitative and quantitative categorization: this can be done based on the methodologies
for the purpose of comparing them and for selecting the most appropriate methodology and
method which suits to our problem under investigation.
 Grouping by conclusions, objectives and chronology:
 This involves grouping literature those have similar conclusions and objectives together for
comparisons and criticisms of each of them.
 Chronology is also very important to show some events within certain periods.

3. Conclusions:
 Summarize major contributions of significant studies in line with our interest,
 It is very important to indicate what methods had been used to achieve the purpose and what
conclusions had been drawn.
 Evaluate the current knowledge reviewed pointing of flaws, gaps and inconsistencies.

35
2.3 Reviewing related literature

2.3.7 Referencing

 APA & Harvard styles

 Bibliography & in text citation

36
2.3 Designing research

2.3.1 Meaning of research design

 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what

means concerning an inquiry or a research study

 is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure

 is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted;

it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data

37
2.3 Designing research

2.3.1 Meaning of research design

 the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do

from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data

 the important features of a research design

 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem

 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

gathering and analyzing the data.

 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are
done under these two constraints.
38
2.3 Designing research

2.3.1 Meaning of research design

 Overall research design can be spitted into the following parts:

 The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting

items to be observed for the given study;

 The observational design which relates to the conditions under

which the observations are to be made;

 The statistical design which concerns with the question of how

many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed; and

 The operational design which deals with the techniques by which

the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.
39
2.3 Designing research

2.3.2 Need for research design

 facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations

 advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting

the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their
analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money

 as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,

we need a blueprint well thought out and prepared by an expert
architect

40
2.3 Designing research

2.3.2 Need for research design

 has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived

at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire

edifice of the research work

 helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form

whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and

inadequacies

41
2.3 Designing research

2.3.3 Features of a good design

 characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient

and economical

 minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data

collected and analyzed is considered a good design.

 gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the

best design in many investigations

 yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for

considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems
42
2.3 Designing research

2.3.3 Features of a good design

 A research design appropriate for a particular research

problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
 the means of obtaining information;
 the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
 the objective of the problem to be studied;
 the nature of the problem to be studied; and
 the availability of time and money for the research work;

43
2.3 Designing research

2.3.4 Important concepts

 Dependent and independent variables

 Dependent variable: variable depends upon or is a

consequence of the other variable

 Independent variable: variable that is antecedent to

the dependent variable
 For instance, if we say that height depends upon
age, then height is a dependent variable and age is
an independent variable

44
2.3 Designing research

2.3.4 Important concepts

 Discrete and continuous variables

 Continuous variables: phenomena which can take on

quantitatively different values even in decimal points

 Discrete variables: phenomena expressed in integer

values
 Age is an example of continuous variable, but the
number of children is an example of non-continuous
variable

45
2.3 Designing research

2.3.4 Important concepts

 Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not

related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable

 Example: In a relationship b/n children’s gains in social studies

achievement and their self-concepts, intelligence may affect social
studies achievement

 Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not

free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded relationship
46
2.3 Designing research

2.3.4 Important concepts

 Experimental and control group

 Control group: when a group is exposed to usual conditions

 Experimental group: when the group is exposed to some

novel or special condition

47
2.3 Designing research

2.3.5 Different research designs

1. research design in case of exploratory research

studies

2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

research studies

3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing

research studies

48
2.3 Designing research

2.3.5 Different research designs

 Research design in case of exploratory research studies

 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of
ideas and insights

 the research design appropriate for such studies must be

flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study

 Generally, the following three methods in the context of

research design: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b)
the experience survey and(c) the analysis of ‘insight-
stimulating’ examples.
49
2.3 Designing research

2.3.5 Different research designs

 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

research studies
 From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as
well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and
grouped together
 Since the aim in these researches is to obtain complete and
accurate information, the procedure to be used must be carefully
planned
 The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximize reliability, with due concern for
the economical completion of the research study
 The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible

50
2.3 Designing research

2.3.5 Different research designs

 research design in case of hypothesis-testing research

studies/experimental
 Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about
causality

 Hence, the research design in such studies means the design of

experiments.

 Today, the experimental designs are being used in researches

relating to phenomena of several disciplines originated in the
context of agricultural operations
51
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.1 Develop data collection instruments

 The technique of developing measurement tools involves

a four-stage process, consisting of the following:

 Concept development

 Specification of concept dimensions

 Selection of indicators

 Formation of index

52
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.1 Develop data collection instruments

 Concept development

 understanding of the major concepts pertaining to his study

 Specification of concept dimensions

 by deduction i.e., by adopting a more or less intuitive

approach or

 by empirical correlation of the individual dimensions with the

total concept and/or the other concepts

53
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.1 Develop data collection instruments

 Selection of indicators
 Once the dimensions of a concept have been specified, the
researcher must develop indicators for measuring each
concept element
 Indicators are specific questions, scales, or other devices
by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation,
etc., are measured
 Formation of index
 Combining several dimensions of a concept or different
measurements into a single index
 One simple way for getting an overall index is to provide
scale values to the responses and then sum up the
corresponding scores
54
Group assignment 1

Develop data collection

instrument on your own
topic applying the four
steps above

55
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.2 Collecting data

 Two types of data

 Primary data: those which are collected afresh and for the

first time, and thus happen to be original in character

 Secondary data: those which have already been collected

by some one else and which have already been passed

through the statistical process

56
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.2 Collecting data

 Collecting primary data

 Common methods of collecting primary data

 Observation method

 Interview method

 Questionnaires

57
2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method
 a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation
is not scientific observation

 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data

collection for the researcher when:
 it serves a formulated research purpose

 is systematically planned and recorded and

 is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

 The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in

studies relating to behavioral sciences

58
2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method
 Advantages:
 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately

 the information obtained under this method relates to what is

currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or attitudes

 This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond

and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents (subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
the other)

59
2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method
 Disadvantages/limitations
 it is an expensive method

 the information provided by this method is very limited

 sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational

task
 While using this method, the researcher should keep in
mind things like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded?
 How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?

60
2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method

 Classification of observation: based on the degree of

participation of the observer

 Complete participant
 The researchers are members of the group, and no one
in the group is aware of the fact that they are also an
observer

 While this might allow a true “insider’s” view, it raises

ethical concerns because, in essence, researcher are
deceiving the participants
61
2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method
 Participant as observer
 The researchers are active member of the group and
actively participate in the group’s activities and
interactions, but each member of the group knows that
researchers are also serving a research role

 In essence, a collaborative relationship is developed

between the observer and the participants

 Although this removes the ethical concerns presented

by being a complete observer, researchers may
compromise the natural interaction of the group.
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2.4 Collecting data

 Observation method
 Observer as participant
 Choosing to be an observer as participant removes the
researcher a bit from group membership
 Although researchers certainly still have a connection to
the group, they will not likely participate in the group’s
activities.
 Complete observer
 The researchers might conduct their observations from
behind a one-way mirror or in a public setting
 They are not a member of the group and do not
participate in the group’s activities

63
2.4 Collecting data

 Interview method
 The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses

 The interview can be

 personal interviews or

 telephone interviews

64
2.4 Collecting data

 Interview method

 Personal interviews
 Personal interview method requires the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to
the other person or persons

 At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions

and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the
interviewer initiates the interview and collects the
information

65
2.4 Collecting data

 Interview method
 Personal interviews
 Advantages/merits
 More information and greater depth can be obtained
 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any
 Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
 Greater flexibility to restructure questions specially in case of unstructured
interviews
 Personal information can as well be obtained easily
 The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions
 The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used
 The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be
avoided
 The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.
66
2.4 Collecting data
 Interview method
 Personal interviews
 Disadvantages/demerits
 It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample
 Possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; the
headache of supervision and control of interviewers
 Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or
people in high income groups may not be easily approachable
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting
 Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors
 Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that
would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult
requirement.

67
2.4 Collecting data
 Interview method
 Telephone interview
 This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself
 It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions
 Chief merits
 It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
 It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information
 It is cheaper than personal interviewing method
 A higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method

68
2.4 Collecting data
 Interview method
 Telephone interview
 Chief merits
 Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents
 Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
 At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot
be contacted for one reason or the other.
 No field staff is required.
 Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

69
2.4 Collecting data
 Interview method
 Telephone interview
 Demerits
 Little time is given to respondents for considered answers
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities
 It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answers are required to various questions
 Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more
 Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult
to handle

70
2.4 Collecting data

 Interview method
 Types of interview questions:

 Structured interviews

 Involve the use of a set of predetermined questions

and of highly standardized techniques of recording

 the interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down,

asking questions in a form and order prescribed

71
2.4 Collecting data

 Interview method

 Unstructured interviews
 characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning

 do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and

standardized techniques of recording information

 the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in

case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may
omit certain questions if the situation so requires or even
change the sequence of questions.

72
2.4 Collecting data

 Questionnaires

 quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being

adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and

public organizations and even by governments

 a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned

with a request to answer the questions and return the

questionnaire

 most extensively employed in various economic and business

surveys
73
2.4 Collecting data

 Questionnaires
 The merits
 There is low cost even when the universe is large and is
widely spread geographically.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are
in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought
out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also
be reached conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results
can be made more dependable and reliable

74
2.4 Collecting data

 Questionnaires
 The main demerits
 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to
no-response is often indeterminate.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
 There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions
is difficult.
 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
 This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
75
2.4 Collecting data

 Questionnaires

 Types of questionnaires

 Open ended

 Closed ended

 Mixed

76
2.4 Collecting data

 Collecting secondary data

 Secondary data means data that are already available

 they refer to the data which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary
data, then he/she has to look into various sources

 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in:
 various publications of the central, state and local governments;

 various publications of foreign governments or of international

bodies and their subsidiary organizations;

 technical and trade journals;

 books, magazines and newspapers; 77

2.4 Collecting data
 Collecting secondary data
 Secondary data means data that are already available
 reports and publications of various associations connected with
business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;

 reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists,

etc. indifferent fields; and

 public records and statistics, historical documents, and other

sources of published information

The sources of unpublished data are many;

 they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and

autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other
public/private individuals and organizations. 78
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.2 Collecting data

 Collecting secondary data

 Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.

He/she must make a minute scrutiny because it is just
possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may
be inadequate in the context of the problem which the
researcher wants to study.

 “It is never safe to take published statistics at their face

value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it
is always necessary to criticize arguments that can be
based on them”, Bowley, 79
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.2 Collecting data

 Collecting secondary data

 Te researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:

 Reliability of data:

(a) who collected the data?

(b) What were the sources of data?

(c) Were they collected by using proper methods

(d) at what time were they collected?

(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?

(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

80
2.4 Collecting data

2.4.2 Collecting data

 Collecting secondary data

 Suitability of data

 The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry.

 The researcher must very carefully scrutinize the definition

of various terms and units of collection used at the time of
collecting the data from the primary source originally

 Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original

enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds
differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the
present enquiry and should not be used 81
2.4 Collecting data
2.4.2 Collecting data
 Collecting secondary data
 Adequacy of data
 The already available data should be used by the researcher only when
he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But he should not blindly
discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic
sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be
economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting
information.
 At times, there may be wealth of usable information in the already
available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with
due precaution.
 If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate
and should not be used by the researcher
 The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an
area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the
present enquiry
 From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available
data
82
2.5 Analyzing data
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
where the unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis:
 establishment of categories,
 the application of these categories to raw data through coding, editing,
tabulation
 drawing statistical inferences
 Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data
are put in the form of tables

83
2.5 Analyzing data

 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the

computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by

applying various well defined statistical formulae

 In the process of analysis, relationships or differences

supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses

should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with

what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s)

 In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the

help of various statistical measures 84

2.6 Interpretation & reporting
 Generalizations and interpretation

 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may

be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization,
i.e., to build a theory

 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its

ability to arrive at certain generalizations.

 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might

seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It
is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation
may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
85
2.6 Interpretation & reporting
 Preparation of the report or the thesis

 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what

has been done. Writing of report must be done with great
care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the

preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.

 In its preliminary pages, the report should carry:

 title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword

 a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of

graphs and charts, if any, given in the report
86
2.6 Interpretation & reporting
 Preparation of the report or the thesis
 The main text of the report should have the following parts:
 Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with
various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
 Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical
language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.
 Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
 Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In
fact, it is the final summing up.
 At the end of the report, bibliography & appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data.

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2.6 Interpretation & reporting
 Preparation of the report or the thesis

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in

simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used

only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the

various constraints experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated

88
End of chapter II

89