System Design

Software Engineering Process

A process used to create an IS

Consists of:
 Methodologies
 A sequence of step-by-step
approaches that help develop
the IS
 Techniques
 Processes that the analyst
follows to ensure thorough,
complete and comprehensive
analysis and design
 Tools
 Computer programs that aid in
applying techniques
 Data and Processes

Three key components of an IS

 Data
 Data Flows
 Processing Logic

Data vs. Information

 Data
 Raw facts about people, objects, and events in an
organization such as customer’s account number

 Information
 Data that have been processed and presented in a form
that humans can understand
 Data and Processes
Data
 Understanding the source and kind of
data a system uses is key to good IS
design
 Various techniques are used to
describe data and the relationship
among data

Data Flow
 Groups of data that move and flow
through the system from one place to
another
 Include description of sources and
destination for each data flow

Processing Logic
 Describe steps in the transformation
of data and events that trigger these
steps
Systems Thinking
Characteristics of a
Systems Thinking
System
 Components

 An irreducible part
or aggregation of
parts that make up a
system, also called a
subsystem
 Interrelated

Components
 Dependence of one
subsystem on one or
more subsystems
 A Boundary

 The line that marks

the inside and
outside of a system
and that separates
the system from its
environment
 Systems Thinking
Characteristics of
a System

 A Purpose
 The overall
goal or
function of a
system

 An Environment
 Everything
outside the
system’s
boundary that
interacts with
the system
 Systems Thinking

 Interfaces
 Point of contact at
which the system
meets its
environment or
where subsystems
meet each other
 Input
 Whatever a system
takes from its
environment in
order to fulfill its
purpose
 Systems Thinking

 Output
 Whatever a system
returns to its
environment in
order to fulfill its
purpose
 Constraints
 Limits to what it
can do and how it
can achieve its
purpose within an
environment
(capacity, speed or
capabilities)
 Systems Thinking
Important System Concepts
 Open Systems

 Interact freely with their

environments, taking in input and
returning output
 As environment changes, systems
much adapt to changes or suffer
consequences
 Closed Systems

 Does not interact with environments

 Adaptability are not issues for closed
systems
Business Information Systems are open
Systems
 Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued)

 Logical System Description

 Portrays the purpose and function of the

system
 Does not tie the description to a specific
physical implementation
 Physical System Description

 Focuses on how the system will be materially

constructed

2.12
2.12
Data flow diagrams
 Traditional Waterfall SDLC
One phase begins
when another
completes, little
 organization’s IS needs are identified,
analyzed, prioritized, and arranged
backtracking and
looping
 IS requirements are studied and structured

 all functional features of the IS chosen

for development in analysis are described
independently of any computer platform
 the logical specifications +logical design are
 a description of the transformed into the technology-specific
recommended solution is details from which all programming and system
converted into : construction can be accomplished
 logical and then
 physical system  IS coded, tested, installed and
specifications supported in the organization

 IS systematically repaired
and improved
System development life cycle
 Learning Objectives
 Understand logical process modeling via data
flow diagrams (DFDs).

 Draw DFDs of well structured process models.

 Decompose DFDs into lower-level diagrams.

 Balance high-level and low-level DFDs.

 Approaches to Systems Development

Process-Oriented Approach
 Focus is on how and when data are moved and

transformation of data in an IS
 Involves creating graphical representations

such as data flow diagrams and charts

 Data are tracked from sources, through

intermediate steps and to final destinations

 Natural structure of data is not specified

1.17
1.17
 Approaches to Systems Development

 Disadvantage:
 existence of several data files each

locked within different applications.

 To change a single data element all

files has to be updated

1.18
1.18
 Approaches to Systems Development

Data-Oriented Approach
 Depicts ideal organization of data,

independent of where and how data are

used
 Data model describes kinds of data and

business relationships among the data

 Business rules depict how organization

captures and processes the data

 Process Modeling
Graphically represent processes that
 capture,
 manipulate,
 store,
 distribute data
between
(system + environment)
 among system components

Utilize information gathered during

requirements determination
 Process Modeling (cont.)
Deliverables and Outcomes

Context data flow diagram (DFD)

 Scope of system

DFDs of current physical and logical system

 Enables analysts to understand current system

DFDs of new logical system

 Technology independent
 Show data flows + structure +functional requirements

Thorough description of each DFD component

 Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued)

 Decomposition
 The process of breaking down a system into smaller
components which can be further broken down

 Allows the systems analyst to:

 Break a system into small, manageable subsystems

 Focus on one area at a time

 Concentrate on component relating to one group

of users
 Build different components at independent times

2.22
2.22
 Decomposition

The process of breaking down a system into smaller components

which allows the systems analyst to:

Break a system into small, manageable subsystems

Focus on one area at a time
Concentrate on component
pertinent to one group of users
Build different components at independent times
 Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued)

 Modularity
 Process of dividing a system into modules of a
relatively uniform size
 Direct result of decomposition
 Modules simplify system design
 Coupling
 The extent to which the subsystems depend on each
other
 Subsystems should be as independent as possible else
failure of one subsystem fails the entire system.
 Cohesion
 Extent to which a system or a subsystem performs a
single function

2.24
2.24
 Functional Decomposition

An iterative process of breaking a system

description down into finer and finer detail

High-level process lower-level sub-process

DFD charts created for each level of detail

 DFD Levels

Context DFD
 Overview of the organizational system

Level-0 DFD
 Representation of system’s major processes at high
level of abstraction

Level-1 DFD
 Results from decomposition of Level 0 diagram

Level-n DFD
 Results from decomposition of Level (n-1) diagram
Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

A picture of the movement of data within a

system between
 external entities
 processes
 data stores

Difference from system flowcharts:

 DFDs depict logical data flow independent of
technology
 Flowcharts depict details of physical systems
DFD Symbols
Process: work or actions
performed on data (inside the
system)

Data store: data at rest (inside

the system)

Source/sink: external entity that

is origin or destination of data
(outside the system)

Data flow: arrows depicting

movement of data
 Context Diagram
Context diagram
shows
1 )system
boundaries,
2) external
entities
that interact with
the system,
and
3) major info
flows between
entities and
the system.
1) Process =1
2) Data stores =0
3) Data flows =4.
4) Source=1 +Sink =2
 Level-0 DFD
Level-0 DFD
shows the
system’s
1) major
processes,
2) data flows,
and
3) data stores
at a high
level of
abstraction.

Processes are labeled 1.0, 2.0, etc.

 Level-1 DFD

Level-1 DFD
shows
the sub-processes
of one of the
processes in the
Level-0 DFD.

Level-1 DFD
for Process
4.0.

Processes are labeled 4.1, 4.2, etc.

 Level-n DFD

Level-n DFD
shows
the sub-
processes of
one of the
processes in the
Level (n-1)
DFD.

Level-2 DFD for Process 4.3.

Processes are labeled 4.3.1, 4.3.2, etc. If this is the lowest

level of the hierarchy, it is called a primitive DFD.
DFD Diagramming Rules
Process

No process can
have only outputs
or only inputs…
processes must
have both
outputs and
inputs.

Process labels should be verb phrases.

DFD Diagramming Rules
Data Store

All flows to or from a data store

must move through a process.

Data store labels should be noun phrases.

 DFD Diagramming Rules
Source/Sink

No data moves directly between external

entities without going through a process.

Interactions between external entities without

intervening processes are outside the system
and therefore not represented in the DFD.

Source and sink labels should be noun phrases.

DFD Diagramming Rules
Data Flow
Bidirectional flow update
between process
and data store is
represented by retrieve
two separate
arrows.

Forked data flow

must refer to
exact same data
item (not
different data
items) from a
common location
to multiple
destinations.
DFD Diagramming Rules
Data Flow (cont.)
Joined data flow
must refer to
exact same data
item (not
different data
items) from
multiple sources to
a common location.
X

Data flow cannot

go directly from
a process to
itself, must go
through
intervening
processes.
 DFD Diagramming Rules
Data Flow (cont.)
Data flow from a
process to a data
store means update
(insert, delete or
change). update

Data flow from a

data store to a
process means retrieve
retrieve or use.

Data flow labels

should be noun
phrases.
 DFD Balancing

The conservation of inputs and outputs to a

data flow process when that process is
decomposed to a lower level

Balanced DFD means:

 lower level Number of inputs =higher level Number of inputs

 lower level Number of outputs =higher level Number of outputs

 Unbalanced DFD

This is
1 input unbalanced
1 output because the
process of the
context
diagram has
only 1 input
but Level-0
diagram has 2
2 inputs inputs.
1 output
 Balanced DFD
Input =1
Output =3

These are balanced because the

numbers of inputs and outputs of
context diagram process equal the
number of inputs and outputs of
Level-0 diagram.
Balanced DFD (cont.)
These are balanced because the
numbers of inputs and outputs to
Process 1.0 of the Level-0
diagram equals the number of
inputs and outputs to the Level-1
diagram.

1 input
4 outputs
 Data Flow Splitting

A composite data flow

at a higher level may be
split if different parts
go to different
processes in the lower
level DFD.

This remains balanced because the same data is involved,

but split into two parts.
More DFD Rules
 Summary

 Understand logical process modeling via

data flow diagrams (DFDs).
 Draw DFDs of well structured process
models.
 Decompose DFDs into lower-level
diagrams.
 Balance high-level and low-level DFDs.