Global Warming:

A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
Global Warming is defined as the increase in the earth’s atmospheric and oceanic temperatures,
widely due to an increase in the greenhouse effect resulting from various reasons.
Causes of Global Warming or Climate Change Natural Causes of Global Warming
1. Forest Fires
Deforestation by nature is another leading cause of global warming. Forest fires emit carbon-
filled smoke into the atmosphere, and new forests’ growth is slow and not stable enough to
produce the much-needed oxygen into the newly, suffocating carbon air. Natural forest fires will
eventually run their course, but left in the ashes are polluting gases that get trapped in the
atmosphere.
2. Permafrost
When frozen soil, constituting about 25% of the Northern Hemisphere, increases, it keeps in the
carbon and methane gases. Permafrost is actually leaking carbon into the earth’s atmosphere.
While scientists cannot stop permafrost from emitting these gases, the earth’s melting icecaps at
incredibly fast rates, are cause for concern.
3. Sunspots
According to the Environment Protection Agency (EPA), sunspots are increasing global
temperature. Sunspots restrict the passing of solar plasma, which in turn gives off radiation.
Sunspots and solar flares are powerful and unstoppable.
They can change the energy radiating to earth’s atmosphere, and thus increase climate
temperature. Solar flares, however, have been a naturally occurring event for millions of years.
4. Water Vapor
According to NASA, two-thirds of the gases stuck in the thick blanket is in the form of water
vapor. This hitch in tow effect means rising temperature, rising vapor. The water vapor is unable
to escape and thus results in hotter climate changes.
5. Man’s Best Friend
Our friendly, furry, bizarre, and sometimes extreme pals in the animal kingdom are also to
blame, sort of. While animals also breathe out carbon dioxide and methane, their small
contribution is miniscule compared to humans and their consumption of non-renewable energy.
Nature’s animal release of carbon dioxide, although minor, is still a natural causing factor in
releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Human Causes of Global Warming
1. Man-induced Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees and plants to make way for any development activity.
Mother nature taking out an entire forest is one thing, but the man doing it for the use of crop
cultivation, fuel, and other consumption, is another. Each day our forests are bulldozed for the
prospect of farms and factories. Fuel used for wood and charcoal only adds to the polluted gases
in the atmosphere.
The loss of our forests results in a chain reaction where too much carbon is released into the air,
with not enough oxygen to combat it. Deforestation is blamed for the rise in the greenhouse gases
present in the atmosphere by cutting or burning them.
2. Fossil Fuels
Pollution, whether it is vehicular, electrical or industrial, is the main contributor to global
warming. Every day billions of vehicles release various gases into the atmosphere. This causes
the Earth to warm up and increase its average temperature. Electricity causes pollution in many
ways. Over 75% of electricity worldwide is produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Many gases
are sent into the air when fossil fuels are burnt of which main is the carbon dioxide gas.
Fossil fuel like coal is burnt to produce electricity. Coal is the major fuel that is burnt to produce
power. Coal produces around 1.7 times as much carbon dioxide per unit of energy when flamed
as does natural gas and 1.25 times as much as oil.
Industries, on the other hand, release various gases into the water and air. Carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide are the major greenhouse gases. Different gases have different
heattrapping capabilities. Some of them trap more heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is much
more effective than carbon dioxide in entrapping heat in the atmosphere. By driving cars, using
electricity from coal-fired plants and heating up our homes from natural gases, we release carbon
dioxide and other heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.
3. Landfills
When we throw garbage out of our house it goes to landfills. Landfills are those big chunks of
garbage that stink and can be seen in so many places around the world. The garbage is then used
by big recycling companies to make some useful products out from it.
Most of the time that garbage is burnt which releases toxic gases including methane into the
atmosphere. These enormous amounts of toxic greenhouse gases when go into the atmosphere
make global warming worse.
4. Overpopulation
Another cause of global warming is overpopulation. Since carbon dioxide contributes to global
warming, the increase in population makes the problem worse because we breathe out more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. More people means more demand for food, more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, more demand for cars and more demand for homes.
More demand for food will lead to more transportation since the movement of goods and services
is done by the transportation sector. More demand for cars means more pollution in the air and
more traffic on the roads which means longer waiting time on the traffic lights and that will result
in the burning of more fuel. More demand for homes means cutting down of plants and trees to
make way for homes, schools, and colleges.
5. Mining
Oil and coal are the two main culprits in producing greenhouse gases. Methane, like carbon
dioxide, creates a thick shield over the atmosphere trapping the sun’s rays. With the continued
use of mining operations, these harmful gases will only increase.
6. Fertilizer Use
The unique thing about fertilizer is that it produces nitrous oxide once it absorbs the soil. Nitrous
oxide is 300 times more dangerous than carbon dioxide. The EPA strongly warns that the
farming industry’s use of fertilizer is one of the leading causes of global warming.
7. Meat Consumption
Due to our Western diet and habits, the raising, grazing, and manufacturing of animal products
contribute greatly to the rise of global temperature.According to research, 51% of the greenhouse
gases: methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide are caused by animal agriculture. If we would
stop ordering juicy cheeseburgers, excessive amounts of carbon dioxide by animals stop emitting
the atmosphere.
Environment:
Definition:
a. The environment refers to our immediate surroundings in which all living and non-living
components co-exist. It can be used to refer to the social, natural or built environment.
b. Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and
space.
Types of Environment
There are two different types of environment:
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
b. Built/Man-made Environment
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
It consists of all components provided by nature and hence can be called as the natural
environment. It is also referred to as the physical environment as it pertains to the physical
requirements of life. These physical or geographic conditions are not dependent on the existence
of humans. Sometimes, humans have no control over the physical conditions of the environment.
It includes natural resources, the earth’s surface, mountains, plains, land, water, deserts, storms,
cyclones, volcanoes, oceans, climatic factors, and so on. It is also used to refer to biological
situations such as complexities associated with plants and animals.
b. Built/Man-Made Environment
This environment is used to refer to the one created by man in order to regulate and monitor
certain environmental conditions. Some address it as a social-cultural environment. It can further
be divided into two types of environments.
1. Inner Environment
2. Outer Environment
1. The Inner Environment
It is a social environment and it exists as long as a particular society exists. It pertains to the
regulations, traditions, organizations and institutions. It involves customs and folkways which is
existent in every human group. It is addressed with names such as non-material culture, social
heritage etc. This heritage is essential for the social life of humans to flourish, it is known to have
an influence on an individual’s life. The altered form of the economic and physical environment -
artificial environment, are seen as two different aspects of the man-made environment.
2. The Outer Environment
Through advancement in the field of science and technology, humans have attempted to alter
conditions of their physical environment. This outer environment is as a result of these
modifications which includes modern infrastructure in cities, our homes and their associated
amenities, our modes of communication and transport, our resorts to conveniences and luxury,
different kinds of industry manufacturing luxurious commodities, electrical appliances and so on
which ultimately aims at civilization and urbanization.
The inner and the outer environments are correlated and hence inseparable.
Ecosystem:
1. An ecosystem is a physically defined environment, made up of two inseparable components:
■ The biotope (abiotic): a particular physical environment with specific physical
characteristics such as the climate, temperature, humidity, concentration of nutrients or
pH.
■ The biocenosis (biotic): a set of living organisms such as animals, plants or
microorganisms, that are in constant interaction and are, therefore, in a situation of
interdependence.
2. An ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their environment.
The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or
mountain tops is tundra type.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days
are hot and the nights are cold.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
 Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up
on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.

o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a carnivore
or an omnivore.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary
consumers can also be an omnivore.
o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no
natural predators.
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
I. Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
It is the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to
organism.
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all
plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used
to synthesise their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed
on through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the
reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the
producers.
 FOOD CHAIN BYJU
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A classic example of a food chain in an ecosystem

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers
are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.

For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:

Ecological py
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radiation

Herbivores

Primary
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water, air,

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Grasshopper ^Mice^- Cobra ^ Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a
single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains.
In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
Services provided by Ecosystem:
Without ecosystem services, life on Earth as we know it wouldn’t exist. There are four main
categories of ecosystem services:
a. Provisioning services refer to the products secured by ecosystems. These include:
• Water
• Food (including cattle and seafood)
• Pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (sunlight, hydropower, biomass)
b. Regulating services are the ecosystem services that allow the regulation of ecosystem
processes such as:
• Climate regulation (and carbon absorption and storage via the oceans, trees, soil)
• Waste decomposition (one of the most essential microbial process happening in soil)
• Crop pollination (performed by agents such as bees that contribute to the reproduction of
flowering plants)
• Water and air purification and regulation
• Control of pests and diseases
c. Supporting and habitat services refer to the ability of ecosystems to give habitat for migratory
species and to support the viability of gene-pools.This is possible thanks to:
• Primary reproduction
• Nutrient and seed dispersal
d. Cultural services are the benefits ecosystem services bring to humans. Examples of these are:
• Inspiration for intellectual (creativity), cultural (entertainment) and spiritual (why) purposes
- Remember how it feels good to seeing and hearing wild birds
- Animals, plants and even the funghi kingdom serve as inspiration in theaters, movies...
- Many people go to natural sites when they want to be alone or reflect about life
• Recreational experiences such as outdoors activities or ecotourism
• Scientific discovery and optimization/efficiency by following examples of the natural world
(biomimicry)

Ecology
Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact with each
other and their environment. It is studied at various levels, such as organism, population,
community, biosphere, and ecosystem.
Ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes, adaptations and
habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organisms.
I. Biotic and Abiotic Factors
The main aim of ecology is to understand the distribution of biotic and abiotic factors of living
things in the environment. The biotic and abiotic factors include the living and non-living factors
and their interaction with the environment.
Biotic components
Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of biotic components
include bacteria, animals, birds, fungi, plants, etc.
Abiotic components
Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These
components could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. A few
examples of abiotic components include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals, and more.
Living organisms are grouped into biotic components, whereas non-living components like
sunlight, water, topography are listed under abiotic components.
II. Types of Ecology

Ecology can be classified into different types. The different types of ecology are given below:

Global Ecology
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere, and oceans. It helps to
understand the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet.
Landscape Ecology
It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms, and other products of ecosystems.
Landscape ecology throws light on the role of human impacts on the landscape structures and
functions.
Ecosystem Ecology
It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living components and
their relationship with the environment. This science research how ecosystems work, their
interactions, etc.
Community Ecology
It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living organisms.
Ecology community is made up of two or more populations of different species living in a
particular geographic area.
Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of the population
of organisms. Ecologists are interested in fluctuations in the size of a population, the growth of a
population and any other interactions with the population.
In biology, a population can be defined as a set of individuals of the same species living in a
given place at a given time. Births and immigration are the main factors that increase the
population and death and emigration are the main factors that decrease the population.
Population ecology examines the population distribution and density. Population density is the
number of individuals in a given volume or area. This helps in determining whether a particular
species is in endanger or its number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.
Organismal Ecology
Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour, morphology, physiology,
etc. in response to environmental challenges. It looks at how individual organisms interact with
biotic and abiotic components. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to these nonliving
and living components of their surroundings.
Individual species are related to various adaptations like physiological adaptation, morphological
adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.
Molecular Ecology
The study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins and how these proteins affect the
organisms and their environment. This happens at the molecular level.
DNA forms the proteins that interact with each other and the environment. These interactions
give rise to some complex organisms.

III. Importance of Ecology The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:
Conservation of Environment
Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows the individuals
the extent of damage we cause to the environment.
Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and the environment. It has
also led to the extinction and endangerment of certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark,
mammoths, etc. Thus, the study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from
any damage and danger.
Resource Allocation
With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are necessary for the
survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation
of these resources, leading to competition.
Energy Conservation
All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological
understanding leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light, nutrition, and
radiation, leading to its depletion.
Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary wastage of energy
resources, thereby, conserving energy for future purposes.
Eco-Friendliness
Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a lifestyle that
protects the ecology of life.

Agroecology:
Agroecology is the study of ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems.
Bringing ecological principles into agroecosystems could suggest novel management approaches
that would not help in climate change. Agroecology encompasses the relationship between
agricultural production systems and ecological processes. It includes all the techniques that allow
agricultural practices to be more respectful of the environment and its ecological specificities.
Strengths of natural ecosystems
Natural ecosystems exhibit certain strengths or characteristics. These include the following:

1. Efficiency. Efficient energy flows are characteristic of natural systems. The sun’s energy
captured by green plants is then used by many organisms, as fungi and bacteria decompose
organic residues and are then fed upon by other organisms, which are themselves fed upon by
others higher up the food web. Natural ecosystems also tend to be efficient in capturing and using
rainfall and in mobilizing and cycling nutrients. This helps to keep the ecosystem from ‘running
down’ through the excessive loss of nutrients and at the same time helps maintain the quality of
the groundwater and surface waters. Precipitation tends to enter the porous soil, rather than
runoff, providing water to plants as well as recharge to ground water, slowly releasing water to
streams and rivers.

2. Diversity. A great biological diversity, both above ground and in the soil, characterizes many
natural ecosystems in temperate and tropical regions. This provides checks and balances, nutrient
availability to plants, checks on disease outbreaks, etc. For example, competition for resources
and specific antagonisms (such as antibiotic production) from the multitude of soil organisms
usually keep soil borne plant diseases from severely damaging a natural grassland or forest.

3. Self-sufficiency. A consequence of efficiency and diversity is that natural terrestrial

ecosystems are self sufficient— requiring only inputs of sunlight and rainfall.

4. Self-regulation. Because of the great diversity of organisms, outbreaks (or huge population
increases) of diseases or insects that severely damage plants or animals are uncommon. In
addition, plants have a number of defense mechanisms that help protect them from attack.

5. Resiliency. Disturbances occur in all ecosystems— natural or not. The stronger ones are more
resistant to disturbances and are able to bounce back quicker.
Climate change is a complex problem, which, although environmental in nature, touches and has
consequences for all spheres of existence of our people. It impacts on and is impacted by global
issues, including food, trade,
poverty, economic development, population growth, sustainable development and resource
management. Stabilizing the climate is a definitely a huge challenge that requires planning and
steps in the right directions. However, the bigger questions lie in understanding not just the ‘how
much’ but also the ‘how-to’- how to reduce these emissions, how to produce enough healthy food
and how to have clean energy?
Solutions for mitigating climate change come from all arenas in the form of creating new
technologies, renewable clean energies and even changing management practices. Agroecology is
one such practice that deals with the ‘how to’ of mitigation as well as adaptation to climate
change. The uncertainty of raising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, droughts and the
emergence of unfamiliar pests and diseases, demands a form of agriculture that is resilient, and a
system of food production that supports local knowledge transfer and on farm experimentation
through building adaptive capacity of farmers. Majority of climate change mitigation activities
are foundations of organic practices. Organic production systems serve as the best widespread
examples of low emissions agriculture. Organic systems are more resilient than industrial systems
in terms of withstanding environmental shocks and stresses including droughts and flooding.
Conventional agriculture releases high carbon emissions due to the over use of fossil fuels and
destroys biodiversity. For agriculture, the idea is for a shift towards agroecological models of
production that allow drastic reductions in the use of fossil fuels, present great mitigation
potential through soil, wildlife and plant rejuvenation, and have the flexibility as well as diversity
required to allow adaptation to changing conditions. In practice, agriculture can contribute to
cooling the planet in three ways: by reducing the use of fossil fuel (through reducing and/or
completely removing chemical and synthetic fertilizers and pesticide production) and of fossil
fuel powered transport and machinery; by positively effecting biodiversity and by slowing the
release of biotic carbon.
Agroecology can significantly impact climate change positively as it builds: Agro-ecosystem
resilience that would look at consistency and sustainability of yield even and especially so, with
the changing climate; Livelihood resilience that would help in achieving diversification of
livelihood options through poultry, cattle, fish breeding etc...
This also helps in separating agricultural practice from instability and changes in other markets,
while holding assets on the farm and also reduced or completely stops dependency on external
inputs. Smallholder agroecology is not only an effective solution to complex agricultural
challenges, but also an affordable way to increase yields without external inputs outside the farm.
Further, it offers low inputs, low emissions and local control over production decisions, offering
Food Sovereignty alternative to the unsustainable agro-monocultures currently being pushed to
address the food
crisis. Several characteristics that are found in local or indigenous breeds will become
increasingly important as climate change alters the environment and affects the produce. Local
seeds and crops have a much better chance of
survival in their local environment with the changing climate conditions. Their protection, along
with the local knowledge is critical to their management and breeding, is extremely crucial to feed
us in the future.
Agro-ecological solutions to climate change are based on a systemic approach, on a deep
understanding of the transformation processes of living beings, which involve political, social and
economic transformations. Multi-functional and diverse agricultural systems and locally
diversified food systems are essential to ensure food security in an era of climate change. A rapid
global transition to such systems is imperative both to mitigate climate change and to ensure food
security.

As stated in the “Declaration of Small Food Producers and Civil Society Organisations” at the
Second International Symposium on Agroecology: “Agroecology cannot be understood as a
simple set of production techniques and practices. Agroecology is a lifestyle to our peoples,
carried on in harmony with the language of nature. It represents a paradigm shift in the way we
deploy social, political, productive and economic relations with our territories, to transform the
way we produce and consume food and to restore a socio-cultural reality devastated by industrial
food production. Agroecology generates local knowledge, builds social justice, promotes identity
and culture and strengthens the economic vitality of rural and urban areas.

The following are some adaptive measures for eco-friendly agriculture systems.

The more an agricultural systems can be modelled close to natural ecosystem, it will more
adaptive to the climate change. The natural system which is efficient, diverse, self-regulating,
resilient will cope up better with any unfavorable effects including the adverse impacts of climate
change. Thus, the following are some measures to keep our agriculture system close to natural
ecosystem thereby safeguarding them from unfavorable climate systems.

1. Select crops and varieties resistant to local pests (in addition to other qualities such as yield,
taste, etc.)
2. Plant perimeter (trap) crops that are more attractive to a particular pest than the economic
crop(s) growing in the middle of the field and can intercept incoming insects.

3. Create field boundaries and zones within fields that are attractive to beneficial insects. This
usually involves planting a mix of flowering plants around or inside fields to provide shelter and
food for beneficial.

4. Use cover crops routinely to provide multiple benefits such as habitat for beneficial insects,
adding N and organic matter to soil, reducing erosion and enhancing water infiltration into the
soil, retaining nutrients in soil, (and much more). It is possible to supply all of the nitrogen to
succeeding crops by growing a vigorous winter legume cover crop such as crimson clover in the
south and hairy vetch in the north.

5. Use rotations that are complex, involve plants of different families and, if at all possible,
include sod crops such as grass/clover hay that remain without soil disturbance for a number of
years.

6. Reducing tillage is an important part of an ecological approach to agriculture. Tillage buries

residues, leaving the soil bare and more susceptible to the erosive effects of rainfall, and at the
same time breaks up natural soil aggregates that help infiltration, storage and drainage of
precipitation.

7. Add large quantities of organic materials on a regular basis—animal manures, composts, tree
leaves, cover crops, rotation crops that leave large amounts of residues. Soil organic matter and its
management are at the heart of creating healthy soils that have significant internal strengths that
produce healthy plants that have good defense mechanisms.
8. Taking advantage of global transportation systems to delivering surplus food to where it is
needed[69] (though this does not help subsistence farmers unless aid is given).
9. Developing crop varieties with greater drought tolerance.[71]

10. Rainwater storage. For example, according to the International Water Management Institute,
using small planting basins to 'harvest' water in Zimbabwe has been shown to boost maize yields,
whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger, they have led to three or fourfold increases
in millet yields.[72]
 11. Falling back from crops to wild edible fruits, roots and leaves. Promoting the growth
of forests can provide these backup food supplies, and also provide watershed
conservation, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic value.

Climate Change and Local Adaptation

• Installing protective and/ or resilient technologies and materials in properties that are prone to
flooding
• Changing to heat tolerant tree varieties
• Rainwater storage to deal with more frequent flooding rainfall - Changing to water-
permeable pavements, adding water-buffering vegetation, adding underground storage tanks,
subsidizing household rain barrels
• Reducing paved areas to deal with rainwater and heat
• Adding green roofs to deal with rainwater and heat
• Adding air conditioning in public schools
• Requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations
• Raising pumps at wastewater treatment plants
• Surveying local vulnerabilities, raising public awareness, and making climate change-specific
planning tools like future flood maps
• Incentivizing lighter-colored roofs to reduce the heat island effect
• Installing devices to prevent seawater from backflowing into storm drains
• Installing better flood defenses, such as sea walls and increased pumping capacity
• Buying out homeowners in flood-prone areas
• Raising street level to prevent flooding
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change:
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the
United Nations that is dedicated in providing the world with objective and scientific information
relevant to understand the scientific basis of the risk of human-induced climate change, its
natural, political, and economic impacts and risks, and possible response options.
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The IPCC has adopted and published "Principles Governing IPCC Work",[7] which states that the
IPCC will assess:
• the risk of human-induced climate change,
• its potential impacts, and
• possible options for prevention.
Three Working Group of IPCC:

• Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
 • Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to
climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
• Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and
otherwise mitigating climate change.
Assessment Reports Prepared by IPCC

The IPCC has published five comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate
science, as well as a number of special reports on particular topics. These reports are
prepared by teams of relevant researchers selected by the Bureau from government
nominations. Expert reviewers from a wide range of governments, IPCC observer
organizations and other organizations are invited at different stages to comment on
various aspects of the drafts.
Process in the preparation of the Reports:
There are generally three stages in the review process:[28]

• Expert review (6-8 weeks)

• Government/expert review
• Government review of:
o Summaries for Policymakers o Overview Chapters o Synthesis Report

Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a
non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban
use. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines deforestation as the
conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).
Deforestation is the process in which large areas of forest lands are cleared for various human
activities. Deforestation has many negative effects on our environment, like loss of habitat for
animals and climate change. The process of deforestation is mainly carried out for monetary
gains. Approximately 18 million acres of forests are cleared each year for various uses causing
huge loss to our environment. The current issue of global warming is majorly related to
deforestation.
Causes of Deforestation:
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the
overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for
48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for
14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions,
the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation,
and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though
there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities,
and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.
Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires
and climate change increase their frequency and power.
Effects of Deforestation:
1. Climate Imbalance and Climate Change
Deforestation also affects the climate in many ways. Forests are the lungs of our planet. Trees
take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water vapor in the air, and that is why tropical
rainforests are extremely humid.
Trees also provide shade that keeps the soil moist. All these are compromised with the lack of
trees. It leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature, drier climate, further making
conditions for the ecology difficult that leads to climate change.
Several animals and plant species that form the flora and fauna across the world are vastly
accustomed to their natural habitat. Therefore, haphazard clearance of forests would make it very
difficult for them to survive or to shift from their native environment or adapt to new habitats.
When a forest is cut down, the humidity levels come down and cause the remaining plants to dry
out. The drying out tropical rainforests increases fire damage that destroys forests rapidly and
harms wild animals as well as humans.
Forests and climate are linked intrinsically. Forest loss and degradation are both a cause and an
effect of our changing climate. At the same time, deforestation is self-perpetuating.
Therefore, these occurrences are dangerous and fuel further deforestation. Also, the loss of trees
allows for flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and higher temperatures to occur more rapidly
and exponentially.
Source: Canva
2. Increase in Global Warming
Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees utilize greenhouse gases,
restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant deforestation, the ratio of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes.
3. Increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Forests help to mitigate carbon dioxide and other toxic greenhouse gas emissions. However, once
they’re cut, burned, or otherwise removed, they become carbon sources.
It’s estimated that deforestation is responsible for around 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions,
and due to tropical deforestation, 1.5 billion tons of carbon is released every year in the
atmosphere.
4. Soil Erosion
Trees are also crucial for our local water cycles as they keep on returning water vapor to the
atmosphere. The soil remains moist as the rainwater percolates within the soil.
The fertile soil is held in place by intricate root structures of many layers of trees. With the
clearance of tree cover, the land is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry.
Without trees, erosion often occurs and sweeps the land into nearby rivers and streams. Forests
serve as nature’s water purification plants. Soil erosion makes soil exposed to contaminants that
leach into the water supply, which damages the quality of our drinking water.
5. Floods
When it rains, trees absorb and store a large amount of water with the help of their roots. When
they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted, and the soil loses its ability to retain water. It
leads to floods in some areas and droughts in others.
6. Wildlife Extinction & Habitat Loss
Due to the massive felling down of trees, various animal species are lost. They lose their habitat
and also forced to move to a new location. Many of them are even pushed to extinction.
Our world has lost innumerable species of plants and animals in the last couple of decades. A
study of the Brazilian Amazon forecasts that up to 90% of predicted extinctions will occur until
the next 40 years.
7. Acidic Oceans
The increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to deforestation and burning fossil
fuels make our oceans more acidic. Since the Industrial Revolution, beaches are already 30
percent more acidic, posing ocean species and ecosystems at extreme risk.
8. The Decline in Life Quality of People
People in millions all over the world depend on forests for hunting, small-scale agriculture,
gathering, and medicine. Everyday materials we use, such as latex, cork, fruit, nuts, natural oils,
and resins are found in the tropical forests.
Deforestation disrupts the lives of millions of people. In Southeast Asia, deforestation has
contributed to social conflict and migration. Poor people from Brazil have been lured from their
villages to soy plantations where they are abused and forced at gunpoint to work under inhumane
conditions.
9. Food Insecurity in the Future
Deforestation for food may result in food insecurity in the future. Currently, 52% of all the land
used for food production is moderately or severely impacted by soil erosion. In the long term, the
lack of fertile soil can lead to low yields and food insecurity.
10. Loss of Biodiversity
Deforestation leads to a huge loss of biodiversity. About 80% of the global biodiversity is located
in tropical rainforests. Forests not only provide habitats for wildlife but also foster medicinal
conservation.
The forest acts as a critical medium to preserve the wide variety of species. It also destroys the
microbial community that is responsible for the production of clean water, the removal of
pollutants and the recycling of nutrients.
Ozone Layer
The ozone layer is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of
the Sun's ultraviolet radiation and contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other
parts of the atmosphere.
Formation of Ozone Layer:
Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen
molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms
(atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O 2 to create ozone, O3. The
ozone molecule is unstable and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O 2
and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle.
Chemically, this can be described as:
O2 + hvuv —— 2 O O + O2 ^ O3
Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are the
hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric oxide radical (NO), chlorine radical (Cl) and bromine
radical (Br). At present all of these have both natural and man-made sources. These
elements are found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which
can travel to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low
reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are released from the parent
compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, eg.
CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation ^ Cl- + CFCh
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form
with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a
variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts
with an ozone molecule (O3), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO)
and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2). The ClO can react with a second molecule of
ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical
shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:
. Cl- + O3 ^ ClO + O2
A chlorine atom removes an oxygen atom from an ozone molecule to make a ClO
molecule
. ClO + O3 ^ Cl- + 2 O2
This ClO can also remove an oxygen atom from another ozone molecule; the chlorine is
free to repeat this two-step cycle
The overall effect results decrease in the amount of ozone.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Natural Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer has been found to be affected by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-
spots and stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2%
depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only temporary.
It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and Mt.
Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.
b. Man-made Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Human activities are the main cause of the depletion of the ozone layer. It occurs due to
the excessive use of the man-made chemicals that are bromine and chlorine which release
from the man-made compounds such as:

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

• CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

• Halon

• CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform)

 • CC14 (Carbon tetrachloride)

• H CFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons)

• Chlorofluorocarbons

• Methyl bromide

The main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and
bromine from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride),
HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons), hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to
have a direct impact on the depletion of the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in the
form of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With so
much stability, they are transported into the stratosphere.
The emission of ODS accounts for roughly 90% of the total depletion of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere where ultraviolet
radiation from the sun breaks them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl
bromide and halons).
The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with the ozone molecules and destroy their
molecular structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more than 1,
00,000 molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than
chlorine molecules.
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Increase in UV Rayes
Ozone layer is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB
radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the thickness and
density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the
Earth's surface.
b. Biological Effects
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased UV radiation
on human health. Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both
positive (including production of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and
cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a
health risk to humans.
c. Effects on Animals
A November 2011 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off
the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the
thinning ozone layer is to blame. Apart from whales many other animals such as dogs, cats, sheep
and terrestrial ecosystems also suffer the negative effects of increased UV-B radiations.
d. Effects on Crops
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically
important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the
retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its
increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation,
plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be
directly affected by UVB radiation.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion:
Less use of Fuel: by reducing the usage of the fuels and petroleum used in vehicles nowadays
we can help in reducing the ozone layer depletion

Less use of pesticides: pesticides helps in growing your farms and plants but cause harm to
the ozone layer and contribute to ozone layer depletion.

Limited use of harmful chemicals for cleaning: the chemicals used for making cleaning
products results in depletion of the ozone layer.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Can be defined as:

a. The systematic identification and evaluation of the potential impacts (effects) of proposed
projects plans, programmes or legislative actions to the environment.
b. The systematic process of identifying future consequences of a current or proposed action.
EIA is both an art and a science. Management aspect in EIA is an art, whereas the technical
analysis is based on the scientific principles.
Objectives of EIA
Consequently, the aims and objectives of EIA can be divided into two categories.
• Inform the process of decision-making by identifying the potentially significant environmental
effects and risks of development proposals.
• Promote sustainable development by ensuring that development proposals do not undermine
critical resource and ecological functions or the wellbeing, lifestyle and livelihood of the
communities and peoples who depend on
them.
• Protect human health and safety.
• Avoid irreversible changes and serious damages to the environment.
• Safeguard valued resources, natural areas and ecosystem components.
• Enhance the social aspects of the proposal.
Characteristics/Principles used in EIA:
1. Participation:
An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties.
2. Transparency:
All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible.

3. Certainty:
The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed by all participants in advance.

4. Accountability:
The decision makers of all parties are responsible for their action and decisions under the
assessment process.
5. Credibility:
Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.

6. Cost effectiveness:
The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least cost to
the society.

7. Flexibility:
The assessment process should be able to deal efficiently with any proposal and decision making
situation.

8. Practicality:
The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in decision
making and planning.
History of EIA

Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental

awareness. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in
1969, with the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). EIAs have been
used increasingly around the world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year
"has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS). An
environmental assessment is a "mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the
agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
is necessary.

Common Stages in an EIA Process

Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure that time and resources are directed at
the proposals that matter environmentally and end with some form of follow up on the
implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of
the EIA process are briefly presented below.
1) Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an
EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.
2) Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further investigated.
This stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.
3) Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental and social
impact of the proposed project and evaluates the significance.
4) Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential
adverse environmental consequences of development activities.
5) Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision-making
body and other interested parties.
6) Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides
information necessary for the decision-making.
7) Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further
change.
8) Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks
whether the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the
mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.
Some Misconceptions about EIA:

1. “EIA is too complex”

2. “EIA is too expensive”
3. “EIA will be misused to stop development”
4. "We are too poor to afford EIA"
5. "EIA doesn't produce useful results"
6. "EIA is just an add-on and occurs too late to do any good"
7. “EIA delays projects”
Air Pollution:
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and
drastically.
humans
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease
composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition
in the
has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

IV. Types of Air Pollutants There are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide
emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.
V. Causes of Air Pollution
Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide
released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate
it.
Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also
deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not
only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.
VI. Effects of Air Pollution
The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:
Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The
cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas
are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.
Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the
air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s
temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in
the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain
which damages human, animal and plant life.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is
the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the
harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.
Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life. Pollution also compels
the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also
led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.
VII. Air Pollution Control
Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes
of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also
conserves energy.
Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater
level.
Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.

2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be
controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a
certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less
polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol
and diesel are being replaced by CNG - Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are
mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most
of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on
roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain
existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have
process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants
and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high
pollution levels will be extremely effective.
Water Pollution:
Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution is caused
when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and aquifers get contaminated with
industrial and agricultural effluents.
When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all lifeforms that directly or indirectly depend on
this source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to come.

VIII. Sources Of Water Pollution The key causatives of water pollution in India are:
• Urbanization.
• Deforestation.
• Industrial effluents.
• Social and Religious Practices.
• Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.
• Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and pesticides.
Water Pollution - A Modern Epidemic

One of the primary causes of water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by toxic
chemicals. As seen in the example mentioned above, the dumped plastic bottles, tins, water cans
and other wastes pollute the water bodies. These result in water pollution, which harms not just
humans, but the whole ecosystem. Toxins drained from these pollutants, travel up to the food
chain and eventually affect humans. In most cases, the outcome is destructive to only local
population and species, but it can have an impact on a global scale too.
Nearly 6 billion kilograms of garbage is dumped every year in the oceans. Apart from industrial
effluents and untreated sewage, other forms of unwanted materials are dumped into various water
bodies. These can range from nuclear waste to oil spills - the latter of which can render vast areas
uninhabitable.
IX. Effects Of Water Pollution
The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and its concentration. Also, the
location of water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of pollution.
• Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of
dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial establishments.
• Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, behaviour, causes
illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems from reproduction
to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is bioaccumulated in fish, chicken and meat.
Chemicals such as this travel up the food chain before entering the human body.
• The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the food-
chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon entering the food
chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans) can continue to disrupt at
higher levels.
• Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through faecal
matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can always cause an
outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera etc.
• The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of water
pollution.
X. Control Measures of Water Pollution
Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather than
releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before discharge. Practising
this can reduce the initial toxicity and the remaining substances can be degraded and rendered
harmless by the water body itself. If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then
this can be reused in sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals such as cadmium
and other such elements. Establishing these in regions prone to such kinds of pollutants will
reduce the adverse effects to a large extent.
Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are precipitation, the ion
exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation. As an individual, reusing, reducing, and
recycling wherever possible will advance a long way in overcoming the effects of water
pollution.

Soil Pollution:

Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic
substances. It is a serious environmental concern since it harbours many health hazards. For
example, exposure to soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of
contracting leukaemia. An image detailing the discolouration of soil due to soil pollution is
provided below.
It is important to understand that all soils contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to human
beings and other living organisms. However, the concentration of such substances in unpolluted
soil is low enough that they do not pose any threat to the surrounding ecosystem. When the
concentration of one or more such toxic substances is high enough to cause damage to living
organisms, the soil is said to be contaminated.
The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the following:

• Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)

• Excessive industrial activity
• Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste
The challenges faced in soil remediation (decontamination of soil) are closely related to the
extent of soil pollution. The greater the contamination, the greater the requirement of resources
for remediation.

XI. What are the Pollutants that Contaminate Soil?

Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are xenobiotics - substances that are not naturally
found in nature and are synthesized by human beings. The term ‘xenobiotic’ has Greek roots
-‘Xenos’ (foreigner), and ‘Bios’ (life). Several xenobiotics are known to be carcinogens. An
illustration detailing major soil pollutants is provided below.
The different types of pollutants that are found in contaminated soil are listed in this subsection.

Heavy Metals
The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high concentrations) in
soils can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings. Some metals that can be classified as
soil pollutants are tabulated below.
Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution

Arsenic Mercury Lead

Antimony Zinc Nickel

Cadmium Selenium Beryllium

Thallium Chromium Copper

These metals can originate from several sources such as mining activities, agricultural activities,
electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to PAHs) are organic compounds that:

1. Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2. Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical structures.

Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene, anthracene, and phenalene. Exposure to

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of cancer. These organic
compounds can also cause cardiovascular diseases in humans.
Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke (coal) processing, vehicle emissions,
cigarette smoke, and the extraction of shale oil.
Industrial Waste
The discharge of industrial waste into soils can result in soil pollution. Some common soil
pollutants that can be sourced to industrial waste are listed below.

• Chlorinated industrial solvents

• Dioxins produced from the manufacture of pesticides and the incineration of waste.
• Plasticizers/dispersants
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
The petroleum industry creates many petroleum hydrocarbon waste products. Some of these
wastes, such as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to be carcinogenic in nature.
Pesticides
Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances) that are used to kill or inhibit the
growth of pests. Common types of pesticides used in agriculture include:

• Herbicides - used to kill/control weeds and other unwanted plants.

• Insecticides - used to kill insects.
• Fungicides - used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their growth.
However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into the environment (commonly known
as ‘pesticide drift’) poses a variety of environmental concerns such as water pollution and
soil pollution. Some important soil contaminants found in pesticides are listed below.
Herbicides

• Triazines
• Carbamates
• Amides
• Phenoxyalkyl acids
• Aliphatic acids
Insecticides

• Organophosphates
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Arsenic-containing compounds
• Pyrethrum
Fungicides

• Mercury-containing compounds
• Thiocarbamates
• Copper sulfate
These chemicals pose several health risks to humans. Examples of health hazards related to
pesticides include diseases of the central nervous system, immune system diseases, cancer,
and birth defects.

XII. What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories -

• Naturally caused soil pollution

• Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)

Natural Pollution of Soil

In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are naturally accumulated in soils. This
can occur due to the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in
which this type of soil pollution can occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with
precipitation water.
An example of natural soil pollution is the accumulation of compounds containing the
perchlorate anion (ClO4-) in some dry, arid ecosystems. It is important to note that some
contaminants can be naturally produced in the soil under the effect of certain environmental
conditions. For example, perchlorates can be formed in soils containing chlorine and certain
metals during a thunderstorm.

Anthropogenic Soil Pollution

Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities
can lead to the contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed below.
• The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with
asbestos.
• Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with
hazardous concentrations of lead.
• Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the
hydrocarbons found in petroleum.
• Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of
metallic contaminants into the nearby soils.
• Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
• Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil.
For example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste
into the soil. This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
• Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use
of chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
• Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not disposed of
correctly). These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances.
Other forms of waste that can pollute soil include nuclear waste, e-waste, and coal ash.

XIII. What are the Negative Consequences of Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution harbours a broad spectrum of negative consequences that affect plants,
animals, humans, and the ecosystem as a whole. Since children are more susceptible to
diseases, polluted soil poses a greater threat to them. Some important effects of soil
pollution are detailed in this subsection.
Effects on Human Beings
Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Therefore, these
contaminants can find their way into the human body via several channels such as direct
contact with the skin or through the inhalation of contaminated soil dust.
The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include:

• Headaches, nausea, and vomiting.

• Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.
• Irritation of the skin and the eyes.
• Fatigue and weakness.
A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are
listed below.

• Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system.
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead.
• Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).
• Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.
• Higher risk of developing cancer.
It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons and industrial
solvents have been linked to congenital disorders in humans. Thus, soil pollution can
have several negative effects on human health.
Effects on Plants and Animals
Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant
life ceases to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminium can
prove toxic to
plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable
for the growth of plant life.
Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil pollutants
through a process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are consumed by herbivores, all
the accumulated pollutants are passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of
many desirable animal species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of
the food chain and manifest as diseases in human beings.
Effects on the Ecosystem

• Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by winds
or can seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct contributor to air and
water pollution.
• It can also contribute towards acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into the
atmosphere).
• Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil texture and help in
the decomposition of organic matter. Thus, the negative effects of soil pollution also impact soil
quality and texture.
• Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China, over 12 million tons of grain
(worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found to be unfit for human consumption due to
contamination with heavy metals (as per studies conducted by the China Dialogue).
XIV. How can Soil Pollution be Controlled?
Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some important strategies
followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.
• Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited locations.
• Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation - the temperature is raised in order to force
the contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be collected through vapour
extraction.
• Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for the
decontamination of soil.
• Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal contaminants.
Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the natural
balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like volcanoes can contribute
to noise pollution.
In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental. Also, the duration
an individual is exposed plays an impact on their health. For perspective, a normal conversation is
around 60 decibels, and a jet taking off is around 15o decibels. Consequently, noise pollution is
more obvious than the other types of pollution.
Noise pollution has several contributors, which include:

• Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.

• Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
• Construction noises
• Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.)
• Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)
Noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and industrialisation.
Noise pollution can bring about adverse effects such as :

• Hearing loss
• Tinnitus
• Sleeping disorders
• Hypertension (high BP)
• Communication problems
Desertification:

Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by
losing its flora and fauna, this can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human
activities or improper agriculture. Desertification is a process of degradation of the land. It occurs
because of man-made activities and climate change. Desertification takes place when a particular
type of biome converts into a desert biome.
XV. Desertification Causes

1. Overgrazing
2. Deforestation
3. Farming Practices
4. Urbanization and other types of land development
5. Climate Change
6. Stripping the land of resources
7. Natural Disasters
Desertification Impacts

1. Farming becomes difficult or even impossible in the area

2. Flooding chances are more
3. Hunger - because of no farming
 4. Poor quality of water
5. Overpopulation
6. Poverty as a result of the
above
Greenhouse Effect
A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations
warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and
warms the greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants.
Same is the case in the earth’s atmosphere. During the day the sun heats up the earth’s
atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere.
During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This
is what makes the surface of the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living beings on earth
possible.
However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has
increased considerably. This has led to several drastic effects.
Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse
effect. For eg., carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.”
 GREENHOUSE GASES
□ BYJU'S
METHANE
CARBON CFCs °t2!;E NITROUS
OXIDE
DIOXIDE

Greenhouse Gases such as carbon dioxide is the primary cause for the Greenhouse Effect

The major contributors to the greenhouses gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc.
The increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations to escape from the earth and increase
the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.

XVI. Causes of Greenhouse Effect The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:
Burning of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to
produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in
population, the utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a
considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.
Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.
Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases.

XVII. Effects of Greenhouse Effect The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:
Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the
vehicles, industries and other human activities.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the upper
regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful
UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change the climate
drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
Smog and Air Pollution
Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means
and man-made activities.
In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including
nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are the automobile
and industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals
among themselves.
Acidification of Water Bodies
Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to
the acidification of water bodies.
Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and
lakes thereby causing their acidification.
XVIII. Runaway Greenhouse Effect
This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiations than it can radiate back. Thus,
the heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and the temperature of the planet keeps rising.
Scientists believe that this phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.
This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:

• A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to a level of the
boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans converts into water vapour,
which traps more heat coming from the sun and further increases the planet’s temperature. This
eventually accelerates the greenhouse effect. This is also called the “positive feedback loop”.
• There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect. Suppose the
temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high level that the chemical reactions
begin to occur. These chemical reactions drive carbon dioxide from the rocks into the
atmosphere. This would heat the surface of the planet which would further accelerate the transfer
of carbon dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to the runaway greenhouse
effect.
In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse effect
which would increase the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will exist in the
near future.
Difference Between Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Greenhouse Effect Global Warming

What does it mean?

It is the heat which escapes in the space, the The earth gets overheated by greenhouse gases and
greenhouse gases block this escaping heat and hence fossil fuels leading to the greenhouse effect, which
it enters the earth is global warming

Heat/Temperature aspect

It is how the atmosphere retains heat as the result Increase in the average annual temperature
of greenhouse gases globally

Cause
It is caused by atmospheric accumulation of gases
(methane and carbon dioxide, etc) containing some It is caused by an increased concentration of
heat emitted by the surface of earth. greenhouse gases in the atmosphere majorly
contributed by human activities such as
deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, etc.

Environmental Degradation:

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of

resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the
extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the
environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. As indicated by the I=PAT equation,
environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large
and increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita
affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).
Types of Environmental Degradation
a. Land and soil degradation: Degradation of soil quality from poor farming practices,
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, leakage from landfills etc.
b. Water degradation: Pollution of water from trash dumped in oceans, illegal dumping,
disposal of large amounts of industrial waste into nearby rivers or lakes etc.
c. Atmospheric degradation: This includes air degradation, particle pollution and the
depletion of the ozone layer.
d. Several other kinds of pollution: Apart from land, water and atmospheric degradation, many
other kinds of pollution such as noise pollution, light pollution that are part of environmental
degradation.
Causes of Environmental Degradation
1. Land Disturbance
A more basic cause of environmental degradation is land damage. Numerous weedy plant
species, for example, garlic & mustard, are both foreign and obtrusive.
A rupture in the environmental surroundings provides for them a chance to start growing and
spreading. These plants can assume control over nature, eliminating the local greenery.
The result is a territory with a solitary predominant plant which doesn’t give satisfactory food
assets to all the environmental life. Thus the whole environment can be destroyed because of
these invasive species.
2. Pollution
Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful to the environment.
Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe, which causes health issues.
Water pollution degrades the quality of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land pollution
results in the degradation of the earth’s surface as a result of human activities.
Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to continuous large
sounds like honking of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a factory or
a mill.
3. Overpopulation
Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources, which results in the degradation of our
environment. Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities, which has resulted in
an increased lifespan.
More population simply means more demand for food, clothes and shelter. You need more space
to grow food and provide homes to millions of people. This results in deforestation, which is
another factor in environmental degradation.
4. Landfills
Landfills pollute the environment and destroy the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the
city due to the large amount of waste that gets generated by households, industries, factories and
hospitals.
Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the environment and the people who live there.
Landfills produce a foul smell when burned and cause substantial environmental degradation.
5. Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Rapid
growth in population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes of deforestation.
Apart from that, the use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing, harvest for fuelwood and
logging are some of the other causes of deforestation. Deforestation contributes to global
warming as decreased forest size puts carbon back into the environment.
6. Natural Causes
Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush nearby
animal and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas.
This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the result of a specific disaster or
by the long term degradation of assets by the presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the
environment. The latter frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and bugs are washed
ashore.
Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing. Earth itself causes ecological
issues, as well. While environmental degradation is most normally connected with the things that
people do, the truth of the matter is that the environment is always changing. With or without the
effect of human exercises, a few biological systems degrade to the point where they can’t help
the life that is supposed to live there.
Effects of Environmental Degradation
1. Impact on Human Health
Human health might be at the receiving end as a result of environmental degradation. Areas
exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma.
Millions of people are known to have died due to the indirect effects of air pollution.
2. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating
pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation,
global warming, overpopulation and pollution are a few of the major causes of loss of
biodiversity.
3. Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is responsible for protecting the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. The
presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere, is causing the
ozone layer to deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiation back to the earth.
4. Loss For the Tourism Industry
The deterioration of the environment can be a huge setback for the tourism industry that relies on
tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss
of biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of
the tourists.
5. Economic Impact
The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to environmental degradation can have a
significant economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and
protection of endangered species. The economic impact can also be in terms of the loss of the
tourism industry.
Environmental Movement:
A political movement that focuses on protecting the environment, reducing environmental
damage (such as pollution), and reducing unsustainable use of natural resources.
History of Environmental Movement:
The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels of smoke
pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories
and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level o
f air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges
added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[2] Under increasing political pressure from
the urban middle-class, the first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of
Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous
hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash.
In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. Pioneers of
the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They
fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife,
and water resources would lead to the downfall of society. The group that has been the most
active in recent years is the climate movement.
in the 1940s, Aldo Leopold wrote "A Sand County Almanac". He believed in a land ethic that
recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural systems" as a moral and
ethical imperative.
1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring". This book brought together research on
toxicology, ecology and epidemiology to suggest that agricultural pesticides were building to
catastrophic levels. This was linked to damage to animal species and to human health. It shattered
the assumption that the environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants.
1968 - Paul Ehrlich publishes book "Population Bomb" on the connection between human
population, resource exploitation and the environment.
1968 - The Club of Rome, led by Italian industrialist Aurrelio Peccei and Scottish scientist
Alexander King, is established by 36 European economists and scientists. Its goal is to pursue a
holistic understanding of and solutions to the 'world problematique'. It commissions a study of
global proportions to model and analyze the dynamic interactions between industrial production,
population, environmental damage, food consumption and natural resource usage.
1968 - The UN General Assembly authorizes the Human Environment Conference to be held in
1972.
1969 - Friends of the Earth forms as a non-profit advocacy organization dedicated to protecting
the planet from environmental degradation; preserving biological, cultural, and ethnic diversity;
and empowering citizens to have an influential voice in decisions affecting the quality of their
environment -- and their lives.
Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental activist James F.
Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns using the pseudonym "the Fox."
His activities included plugging illegal sewage outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater
produced by a US Steel factory inside the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips'
"ecotage" campaigns attracted considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other
direct action protests against environmental destruction.
1970 - First Earth Day held as a national teach-in on the environment. An estimated twenty
million people participated in peaceful demonstrations all across the USA.
1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada and launches an aggressive agenda to stop
environmental damage through civil protests and non-violent interference.
1972 - Rene Dubos and Barbara Ward write "Only One Earth". The book sounds an urgent
alarm about the impact of human activity on the biosphere but also expresses optimism that a
shared concern for the future of the planet could lead humankind to create a common future.
1972 - United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm under the
leadership of Maurice Strong. The conference is rooted in the regional pollution and acid rain
problems of northern Europe. This eco-agenda is opposed by the Group of 77 and the Eastern
bloc. Nevertheless, it provides the first international recognition of environmental issues. The
concept of sustainable development is cohesively argued to present a satisfactory resolution to
the environmental vs. development dilemma. The conference leads to the establishment of
numerous national environmental protection agencies and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a
wider appeal and influence.
1972 - Club of Rome publishes "Limits to Growth". The report is extremely controversial
because it predicts dire consequences if growth is not slowed. Northern countries criticize the
report for not including technological solutions while Southern countries are incensed because it
advocates abandonment of economic development. The ensuing debate heightens awareness of
the interconnections between several well-known global problems.
1973 - Chipko Movement born in India in response to deforestation and environmental
degradation. The actions of the women of the community influenced both forestry and women's
participation in environmental issues.
1977 - Greenbelt Movement starts in Kenya. It is based on community tree-planting to prevent
desertification.
1977 - UN Conference on Desertification is held.
1980 - World Conservation Strategy released by IUCN. The strategy defines development as "the
modification of the biosphere and the application of human, financial, living and non-living
resources to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life". The section "Towards
Sustainable Development" identifies the main agents of habitat destruction as poverty,
population pressure, social inequity and the terms of trade. It calls for a new International
Development Strategy with the aims of redressing inequities, achieving a more dynamic and
stable world economy, stimulating accelerating economic growth and countering the worst
impacts of poverty.
1980 - US President Jimmy Carter authorizes study which led to the "Global 2000" report. This
report recognizes biodiversity for the first time as a critical characteristic in the proper
functioning of the planetary ecosystem. It further asserts that the robust nature of ecosystems is
weakened by species extinction.
1983 - World Commission on Environment and Development forms. Chaired by Norwegian
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, the commission works for three years to weave together
a report on social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues.
1983 - Development Alternatives is established in India as a non-profit research, development
and consultancy organization. It fosters a new relationship between people, technology and the
environment in the South in order to attain the goal of sustainable development.
1984 - Worldwatch Institute publishes its first State of the World Report. The report monitors
changes in the global resource base, focusing particularly on how changes there affect the
economy. It concludes that "we are living beyond our means, largely by borrowing against the
future."
1986 - IUCN Conference on Environment and Development held in Ottawa. Meeting
participants define sustainable development as the emerging paradigm derived from two closely
related paradigms of conservation 1) one reacting against the laissez-faire economic theory
which considers living resources as externalities and free goods and 2) one based on the concept
of resource stewardship
1987 - "Our Common Future" (Brundtland Report) published. It ties problems together and, for
the first time, gives some direction for comprehensive global solutions. It also popularizes the
term "sustainable development".
1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1988 - Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change established with three working groups to
assess the most up-to-date scientific, technical and socio-economic research in the field of
climate change.
1992 - U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro. It
results in the publication of Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, the Rio Declaration, and a statement of non-binding Forest
Principles. The parallel NGO Forum signs a full set of alternative treaties.
United Conference on the Human Environment
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm
Conference) was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in
Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. It was the UN's first major conference on
international environmental issues, and marked a turning point in the development of
international environmental politics. It was attended by the representatives of 113 countries, 19
inter-governmental agencies, and more than 400 inter-governmental and non-governmental
organizations.
It is widely recognized as the beginning of modern political and public awareness of global
environmental problems.
The participants adopted a series of principles for sound management of the environment
including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and several
resolutions.
The Stockholm Declaration, which contained 26 principles, placed environmental issues at the
forefront of international concerns and marked the start of a dialogue between industrialized and
developing countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of the air, water, and
oceans and the well-being of people around the world.
The Action Plan contained three main categories: a) Global Environmental Assessment Program
(watch plan); b) Environmental management activities; (c) International measures to support
assessment and management activities carried out at the national and international levels. In
addition, these categories were broken down into 109 recommendations.
One of the major results of the Stockholm conference was the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:
3. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned
4. Natural resources must be safeguarded
5. The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained
6. Wildlife must be safeguarded
7. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted
8. Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
9. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented
10. Development is needed to improve the environment
11. Developing countries therefore need assistance
12. Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out environmental
management
13. Environment policy must not hamper development
14. Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards
15. Integrated development planning is needed
16. Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and development
17. Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems
18. Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies
19. National institutions must plan development of states' natural resources
20. Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
21. Environmental education is essential
22. Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries
23. States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others
24. Compensation is due to states thus endangered
25. Each nation must establish its own standards
26. There must be cooperation on international issues
27. International organizations should help to improve the environment
28. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated Achievements:
The Stockholm Conference motivated countries around the world to monitor environmental
conditions as well as to create environmental ministries and agencies. Despite these institutional
accomplishments, including the establishment of UNEP, the failure to implement most of its
action programme has prompted the UN to have follow-up conferences. The succeeding United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development convened in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the
Rio Earth Summit), the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg and
the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) all take their starting
point in the declaration of the Stockholm Conference.
Some argue that this conference, and more importantly the scientific conferences preceding it,
had a real impact on the environmental policies of the European Community (that later became
the European Union). For example, in 1973, the EU created the Environmental and Consumer
Protection Directorate, and composed the first Environmental Action Program. Such increased
interest and research collaboration arguably paved the way for further understanding of global
warming, which has led to such agreements as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, and
has given a foundation of modern environmentalism.
Women and Nature:
Metaphor: Women are associated with nature - i.e. 'Mother Earth', and Nature is associated with
women i.e. 'virgin' (sexually pure) awaiting exploitation or yet untouched by man. Female
lifegiving principle was considered divine and a great mystery so women got Goddess statues
Societal: women are associated with physical side of life, their role is 'closer to nature' as they
centered to fulfill human’s physical requirements: food, reproduction, care of children and sick,
take care of day-to-day life. Women's nature-like role let men to go 'out into the world', to exploit
nature, generally passive as nature. Historically, women have had no power in the outside world,
no place in decision-making, intellectual life, the work of the mind has traditionally not been
accessible to women, they said to be ignorant. Women's values centred around life-giving, must
be re-valued, and elevated from their subordinate role, women's knowledge from experience be
recognized and respected. Women largely absent from formal policy formulation and decision-
making so involve women in such field at all levels; integrate gender concerns in policies and
programs; strengthen /establish mechanisms at the national, regional and international level.
Ortner, an anthropologist, was one of the first to raise the question about the relationship between
women and nature in the title of her 1974 paper, "Is the female to male as nature is to culture?"
Ortner argues that women "seem to be" closer to nature, because of their biology, that is, their
reproductive functions. However, she maintains that "... it is not biology per se, but the social
construction of it, that places women closer to nature," (in Sayers 1982: 108). Thus, women are
"perceived" to be inferior because of their anatomy and inherent social roles (eg., childcare),
which are largely undervalued by society with its overriding emphasis on culture, on thought and
technology.
Merchant (1980) describes two contrasting images of women and nature in pre-sixteenth century
Europe. The first and more dominant image was organic, based upon a culturally sanctioned
respect for the earth which was seen as a "nurturing mother." The second and opposing image
saw nature as wild, as disorder which needed to be controlled. This was reflected in the
conceptualisation of women as witches who "raised storms, caused illness, destroyed crops...and
killed infants," (Merchant 1980: 127 in Jackson 1993: 390) and were therefore unjustly tried and
usually burnt alive.
Vandana Shiva (1989) identifies colonialism as the starting point for the exploitation and control
of women and nature in the Indian context. She argues that the model of development imposed
by imperialism marked a radical shift from the traditional Indian cosmological view of nature as
"Prakriti," a living and creative process based upon the feminine principle of "Shakti" (female
energy). Together with "Purusha," the masculine principle, it created the world. Thus, for women
"...the death of Prakriti is simultaneously a beginning of their marginalisation, devaluation,
displacement and ultimate dispensability. The ecological crisis is, at its root, the death of the
feminine principle," (Shiva 1989: 42).
According to Shiva, this relationship is based on shared similarities, that is both women and
nature create and sustain life and both (in India) have suffered the impact of colonisation and
post-colonial development.
Ecofeminism:
Eco feminism is a social and political movement, attempts to unite environmentalism and
feminism with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal system is based on triple domination of the
people of Third World, women, and nature
Belief that the social mentality that leads to the domination and oppression of women is directly
connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of the environment Ecofeminism, or
ecological feminism, is a term coined in 1974 by Franqoise d'Eaubonne .
Ecofeminist analysis explores the connections between women and nature in culture, religion,
literature and iconography, and addresses the parallels between the oppression of nature and the
oppression of women. There are different types of eco feminism which focus on areas such as
economics, spirituality, colonization, class struggle or racism.These parallels include but are not
limited to seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women
as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature.
Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected. Though the scope of
ecofeminist analysis is broad and dynamic, American author and ecofeminist Charlene Spretnak
has offered one way of categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the study of political theory as
well as history; 2) through the belief and study of nature-based religions; 3) through
environmentalism.
Eco feminism basically has two grounds; One women are nearer to nature & contributing for
nature while man are exploiting nature; another The social mentality that leads to the domination
and oppression of women is directly connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of
the environment’
Eco feminists also criticize Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food that has travelled
thousands of miles and playing sports (golf) which require ecological destruction. Ecofeminism
do share a commitment to developing ethics which do not sanction or encourage either the
domination of any group of humans or the abuse of nature.
Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and patriarchal values. This
notion implies that the effects of capitalism have not benefited women and has led to a harmful
split between nature and culture. In the 1970s, early ecofeminists discussed that the split can only
be healed by the feminine instinct for nurture and holistic knowledge of nature's processes.
Vandana Shiva wrote that women have a special connection to the environment through their
daily interactions and that this connection has been underestimated. According to Shiva, women
in subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in
their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point
that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance
needs are not recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm,
because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's
lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth". Shiva blames this failure on the
Western patriarchal perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva, patriarchy
has labeled women, nature, and other groups not growing the economy as "unproductive".
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that predominate throughout the
world reveal a triple domination of the Global South (people who live in the Third World),
women, and nature.
This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and of nature sits at
the core of the ecofeminist analysis.
World Commission on Environment and Development:
Introduction:
The World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as the
Brundtland Commission, was established by the UN General Assembly in 1983. The 1983
General Assembly passed Resolution 38/161 "Process of preparation of the Environmental
Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond", establishing the Commission. The mission of the
Commission was to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together.
The Chairman of the Commission was Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former Prime Minister of
Norway and and Mansour Khalid was the Vice-Chairman. Members of the commission
represent 21 different nations (both developed and developing countries). The UN decided to
establish the Brundtland Commission to rally countries to work and pursue sustainable
development together.
History:
Ten years after the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, a number of
global environmental challenges had clearly not been adequately addressed. In several ways,
these challenges had grown. Particularly, the underlying problem of how to reduce poverty in
low-income countries through more productive and industrialized economy without,
exacerbating the global and local environmental remained unresolved. Neither high-income
countries in the North nor low-income countries in the South were willing to give up an
economic development based on growth, but environmental threats, ranging from pollution,
acid rain, deforestation and desertification, the destruction of the ozone layer, to early signs of
climate change, were impossible to overlook and increasingly unacceptable. There was a
tangible need for a developmental concept that would allow reconciling economic
development with environmental protection.
In December 1983, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Javier Perez de Cuellar,
asked the former Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem Brundtland, to create an
organization independent of the UN to focus on environmental and developmental problems
and solutions after an affirmation by the General Assembly resolution in the fall of 1983. This
new organization was the Brundtland Commission, or more formally, the World Commission
on Environment and Development (WCED). The Brundtland Commission was first headed
by Gro Harlem Brundtland as Chairman and Mansour Khalid as Vice-Chairman.
The organization aimed to create a united international community with shared sustainability
goals by identifying sustainability problems worldwide, raising awareness about them, and
suggesting the implementation of solutions. In 1987, the Brundtland Commission published
the first volume of “Our Common Future,” the organization's main report.
“Our Common Future”
strongly influenced the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 and the third UN
Conference on Environment and Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002.
Achievement:
The Commission released a benchmark report Our Common Future, also known as the
Brundtland Report in October 1987. After releasing the report, the Brundtland Commission
officially dissolved in December 1987. The report coined and defined the meaning of the term
"Sustainable Development, which is considered as the authentic definition of sustainable to date.
An organization Center for Our Common Future was established in April 1988 to take the place
of the Commission.
Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable
development path. The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference which
had introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere. Our Common
Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda; it aimed to discuss the
environment and development as one single issue.
The term sustainable development was coined in the paper Our Common Future, released by the
Brundtland Commission. Sustainable development is the kind of development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. The two key concepts of sustainable development are:
• the concept of "needs" in particular the essential needs of the world's poorest people, to which
they should be given dominant priority;
• the idea of limitations which is imposed by the state of technology and social organization on
the environment's ability to meet both present and future needs.
The Brundtland Commission's mandate was to:

1. “Re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate innovative,
concrete, and realistic action proposals to deal with them;
2. strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to assess and
propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing patterns and influence policies
and events in the direction of needed change; and
3. raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of individuals,
voluntary organizations, businesses, institutes, and governments” (1987: 347). “The Commission
focused its attention in the areas of population, food security, the loss of species and genetic
resources, energy, industry, and human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and
cannot be treated in isolation one from another”
The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of
poverty reduction, gender equity, and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies
for environmental conservation, and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic
growth in industrialised and industrialising societies existed. The Brundtland Report claimed that
poverty reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures - creating a need for the
balancing between economy and ecology.
The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment
and Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the
adoption of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on
Sustainable Development.
The Earth Summit-1992
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the
'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global conference,
held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment Conference in
Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists,
representatives of the media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for
a massive effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment.
There were 7,000 diplomats and their staff. It was called "mother of all summits" because it was
"the biggest gathering of world leaders ever held“.
The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental
factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in
other sectors to be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to
produce a broad agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and
development issues that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in
the twenty-first century.
The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an attainable goal
for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at the local, national, regional or
international level. It also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and
environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and
that such an integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating and
balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the way
we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make decisions.
This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively debate within governments
and between governments and their citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development.
The issues addressed included:
systematic study of patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic components,
such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals alternative sources
of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates linked to global climate change
new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in
cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke the growing usage and limited
supply of water Achievements:
1. Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to
sustainable development. Agenda 21 is grouped into 4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially in
developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more
sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric
protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological
diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and
radioactive wastes.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth,
women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role o
f indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology transfer, education,
international institutions, and financial mechanisms.
2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: It consisted 27 principles intended
to guide countries in future sustainable development.
3. An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the
Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
Another agreement was to "not to carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that
would
cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate".
4. Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for
signature:
Convention on Biological Diversity
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
5. Forest Principles
6. The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development
World Summit on Sustainable Development:
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) or Earth Summit 2002 was held in
Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. The World Summit on
Sustainable Development was also known as Earth Summit II or Rio +10 which was organised
after 10 years of the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro to develop consensus on the sustainable
development by the United Nations. It was convened to discuss sustainable development by the
United Nations. It was organized10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
The summit focused the world's attention toward meeting difficult challenges, including
improving people's lives and conserving natural resources, with ever-increasing demands for
food, water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and economic security.
Outcomes of World Summit on Sustainable Development:
1. The Summit set the priorities for the detailing of the implementation plan and actions for the
countries on way of sustainability.
2. The Summit gives a political statement in the form of a "Johannesburg Declaration", to be
agreed by world leaders, reaffirming their commitment to work towards sustainable development.
3. The Summit will serve as a platform for the launch of new partnership initiatives known as
"Type 2" outcomes -- by and between governments, NGOs and businesses, to tackle specific
problems and achieve measurable results.
The Earth Summit II or Rio +10 made the commitment to be one of the largest and important
global meetings ever held on the integration of economic, environmental and social
decisionmaking. It will focus on building a commitment at the highest levels of government and
society to better implement Agenda 21, the roadmap for achieving sustainable development
adopted at
the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development -- the "Earth Summit"
-held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Rio +20 Overview
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) was held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil on 20 to 22 June 2012. It resulted in a focused political outcome document which
contains clear and practical measures for implementing sustainable development.
In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals and converge with the
post 2015 development agenda. Rio+20 was one of the biggest international gatherings of 2012,
and the largest event in the history of the United Nations. It presented an opportunity to re-direct
and re-energise political commitment to the three dimensions of sustainable development:
economic growth, social improvement and environmental protection.
Objectives (3)
1. Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development.
2. Assessing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges.
Rio+20 focused on two themes:
1. A Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication
2. The institutional framework for sustainable development
The main outcome of this conference was the adaptation of The Future We Want document.
Outcomes
Two highlights of Rio+20 were an agreement to develop a set of global sustainable development
goals (SDGs) and to establish a high-level political forum on sustainable development. The
outcomes document discusses how the green economy can be used as a tool to achieve
sustainable development; strengthens the United Nations Environment Programme, promotes
corporate sustainability reporting measures and takes steps to go beyond gross domestic product
to assess the well-being of a country.
The Future We Want also focuses on improving gender equity and recognises the important role
Indigenous knowledge plays in sustainable development. The document calls for countries to
strive to achieve a 'land degradation neutral' world (which will be implemented through the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification), to integrate planning and build
sustainable cities and urban settlements (through assistance to local authorities), to strengthen
risk assessments and to develop tools to reduce the risk of disasters.
The Conference also adopted ground-breaking guidelines on green economy policies.
Governments also agreed to strengthen the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on
several fronts with action to be taken during the 67th session of the General Assembly.
Governments also adopted the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption
and production patterns.
The Conference also took forward-looking decisions on a number of thematic areas, including
energy, food security, oceans, cities, and decided to convene a Third International Conference on
SIDS in 2014.
Kyoto Protocol:
Kyoto Protocol is a global Agreement that set targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered
into force in 2005.
Kyoto Protocol aimed at combating global warming.
The Kyoto Protocol is a agreement under which industrialized countries will reduce their
collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared to the year 1990 The Kyoto
Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an
international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases
listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
The Protocol operationalised the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
(UNFCCC). 192 nations committed to reducing their emissions by an average of 5.2% by
2012,

which would represent about 29% of the world’s total emissions.

Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for

specific periods and participated in carbon credit trading. If a country emitted more than its

assigned limit, then it would receive a lower emissions limit in the following period.

Developed vs Developing Nations

Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current levels of GHG

emissions as a result of more than 150 years of unmitigated industrial activity, the Protocol

placed a heavier burden on them. 37 industrialised nations plus the EU were mandated to cut

their GHG emissions, while developing countries were asked to voluntarily comply; more than

100 developing countries, including China and India, were exempted from the treaty.

The Protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and

Non-Annex I contained developing countries. Emission limits were placed on Annex I countries

only. Non-Annex I countries could invest in projects to lower emissions in their countries. For

these projects, developing countries earned carbon credits that they could trade or sell to
developed countries, allowing the developing nations a higher level of maximum carbon

emissions for that period. This effectively allowed developed countries to continue emitting

GHGs.

The Protocol established a monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance

system to ensure transparency and hold parties accountable. All countries’ emissions had to be

monitored and precise records of the trades kept through registry systems.
The Kyoto Mechanisms:

One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market
mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries
must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers
them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:

1. The Emissions trading - known as the carbon market it is envisaged as the key tool to reduce
GHG emissions at global level. According to the UNFCCC Secretariat it was worth 30 billion
USD in 2006 and keeps growing.
2. The Clean development mechanism, CDM - it is a project-based mechanism that feeds the
carbon market and involves investment in sustainable development projects that reduce
emissions in developing countries.
3. The Joint implementation, JI - it is a project-based mechanism that feeds the carbon market
and helps stimulate green investment by encouraging industrialised countries to carry out joint
implementation projects with other developed countries.

International Emissions Trading: Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto
Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not
"used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. Thus, a new
commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is
the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked
and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the "carbon market." More than actual
emissions units can be traded and sold under the Kyoto Protocols emissions trading scheme.
The other units which may be transferred under the scheme, each equal to one tonne of CO2,
may be in the form of:

• A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF)
activities such as reforestation
• An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project

• A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanismproject

activity

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in
Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country to implement an emission-reduction project in
developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits,
each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. The
mechanism is seen by many as a pioneer. It is the first global, environmental investment and
credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs. A CDM
project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or
the installation of more energy-efficient boilers. The mechanism stimulates sustainable
development and emission reductions. A CDM project must provide emission reductions. The
projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and issuance process.

Joint implementation (JI)

The mechanism known as "joint implementation", defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol,
allows a country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or
emission removal project in another developing countries, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2,
which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint implementation offers Parties a
flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host
Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer. A JI project must provide a
reduction in emissions by sources, or an enhancement of removals by sinks.

The Kyoto mechanisms:

• Stimulate sustainable development through technology transfer and investment
• Help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet their targets by reducing emissions or
removing carbon from the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective way
• Encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction
efforts
CDM and JI are the two project-based mechanisms which feed the carbon market. The CDM
involves investment in emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in developing
countries that contribute to their sustainable development, while JI enables developed countries
to carry out emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in other developed countries.
The Doha Amendment

After the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ended in December 2012, parties to the

Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to discuss an amendment to the original Kyoto agreement. The

Doha Amendment added new targets for the second commitment period, 2012-2020, for

participating countries, during which time parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least

18% below 1990 levels

This was short-lived; in 2015, all UNFCCC participants signed another pact, the Paris Climate

Agreement, which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.

Monitoring emission targets

The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review, compliance system and
verification system. to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol,
countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the
trades carried out.

Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN
Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log
to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports
under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to
meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to
the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of
technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in
developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period,
the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In
Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions
trading and joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent
share of proceeds.

Environmental Politics:

Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components:

1. The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment.

2. The examination of the political parties and environmental social movements.
3. The analysis of public policy-making and implementation affecting the environment.

Carrying Capacity:
Can be defined as:

The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available.

The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without reducing its
ability to support the same species in the future.

Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual environmental
changes, perhaps associated with climatic change or the successional development of
ecosystems. More rapid changes in carrying capacity may be caused by disturbances of the
habitat occurring because of a fire or windstorm, or because of a human influence such as timber
harvesting, pollution, or the introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or disease.
Carrying capacity can also be damaged by overpopulation, which leads to excessive exploitation
of resources and a degradation of the habitat’s ability to support the species.
In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:

a
dN
= rN
dt
Where; [i-
N = population size, r= maximum growth rate,
K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and
dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be sustained
biophysically under given technological capabilities. When the population is at carrying capacity,
there is no fluctuation in the birth or death rates. But when there is an increase in the population
size above the carrying capacity, there is an overutilization of natural resources such as water,
land, etc.
Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental problems.
Furthermore, this increase leads to the spread of many diseases. These diseases cause health
problems. It increases death rates in comparison to birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to fewer births.
This causes the population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once at carrying capacity,
stops changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be assessed. Thus,
there should be an adequate use of natural resources, proper treatment of sewage, proper disposal
of waste.
 Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a specified
social system and its associated pattern of resource consumption. Social dimensions of carrying
capacity include lifestyle aspirations, epidemiological factors, and patterns of socially controlled
resource distribution, the disparity between private and social costs, the difficulty in formulating
rational policy in the face of uncertainty, and various other features of human sociopolitical and
economic organization.

Sustainability and Carrying Capacity:

A sustainable condition, process, or activity is one that can be maintained without interruption,
weakening, or loss of valued qualities. Sustainability is thus a necessary and sufficient condition
for a population to be at or below carrying capacity. The wide appeal of sustainability as a
societal condition or goal reflects the moral conviction that the current generation should pass on
its inheritance of natural wealth-not unchanged but undiminished in potential-to support future
generations.
Carrying capacity and sustainability is a relative concept. Also, both are interrelated. Thus, the
conservation of ecology, biodiversity and other important aspects require the proper monitoring
of this concept. This must be done at respective intervals so that human beings are able to
survive and develop in an eco-friendly manner.

Environmental Myths:

Myth 1: Packaging is bad. Because of state-of-the-art packaging, the United States wastes less
food than any part of the world except Africa.

Myth 2: Plastics are bad. Without the use of plastics, total use of packaging materials
(measured by weight) would increase four-fold, energy consumption would double and the garbage
disposal would increase more than double.
Myth 3: Disposables are bad. Careful studies show that disposables are not necessarily worse
than reusable or recyclable products. For example, aseptic juice boxes (which are usually disposed of,
rather than recycled) have a clear edge over their alternatives by most measures. Consumers who care
mainly about landfills may choose cloth diapers. But consumers who care more about air and water
pollution and conserving water and energy might choose disposables, which may also be preferable
on the grounds of health and convenience.
Myth 4: Recycling is always good. Recycling itself can cause environmental harm, e.g.,
more fuel consumption and more air pollution. As a result, the environmental costs of recycling may
exceed any possible environmental benefits.
 Myth 5: Recycling paper saves trees. Since most of the trees used to make paper are grown
explicitly for that purpose, if we use less paper, fewer trees will be planted and grown by
commercial harvesters. Recycling paper doesn't save trees, it reduces incentives to plant them.
Myth 6: We cannot safely dispose of solid waste. This was a valid concern in the past. In
fact, 22 percent of Superfund sites (hazardous waste disposal areas) are former municipal landfills.
But things are different today. Government regulations and new technology permit the safe disposal
of solid waste -- in landfills or by waste-to-energy incineration — without threat to human health or
the environment. Even without new improvements, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates
that the aggregate risk from all operating municipal solid waste landfills in the United States is one
cancer death every 23 years.
Myth 7: We are running out of resources. Although all resources are finite, technology and
markets make it possible to use resources without exhausting them. That's why the international
price of virtually every raw material went down (reflecting abundance), not up (reflect ing scarcity)
over the past decade.
Myth 8: Forests are in rapid decline.
Myth 9: Air quality is getting worse.
Myth 10: The Kyoto Protocol will successfully reduce levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Myth 11: All environmentalists are motivated by altruistic concern for the planet.
Myth 6: All environmentalists are peace loving and engage in traditional forms of civil
disobedience.
Myth 7: Businesses are not hurt by onerous environmental regulations.
Myth 8: Oil can easily be replaced by renewable energy.
Myth 9: Genetically modified (GM) crops are "bad."
Myth 10: We are running out of freshwater

Development Narrative:

Collier, P. Focus on those living in countries where the potential for growth is
The Bottom trapped. Engage a broader sweep of instruments beyond aid.
Billion

Sachs, Development aid should be large, focused, and integrated. Governance

J. The and institutions will develop as growth occurs.
End of Poverty
 Weak accountability means that the interventions of top-down planners
Easterly, W.
tend to fail.
The White
Be humble. Look for opportunities to support home-grown initiatives.
Man’s Burden
Be better at listening in- country. Support real accountability - for
yourselves and for others.

Sachs, W. Climate change signals the biophysical limits of growth.

Global Link Northern domestic and Northern development efforts much more
Challenges: closely.
Climate There needs to be a convergence in resource use per unit of growth - in
Chaos and the North and South.
Future of Northern countries have to be prepared to act unilaterally on climate
Development change if necessary.

Rich countries want poor countries to do as they say, not as they did.
Chang, H-J.
Poor countries need selective, strategic integration with world economy.
Bad
Tilt the playing field in favour of developing countries. Give them freer
Samaritans
access to open markets and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

Fulfil G8 commitments; fairer trade; more open IPR; developed country

Stiglitz, J.
leadership on climate change; more responsible governance in North of
Making
financial services, arms, narcotics.
Globalization
Be more supportive of civil society to put more pressure on developed
Work
and developing countries to make globalisation more inclusive.

Population, Environmental Impact and Natural Resources:

The impact (I) of any population can be expressed as a product of three characteristics: the
population's size (P), its affluence or per-capita consumption (A), and the environmental damage
(T) inflicted by the technologies used to supply each unit of consumption (Ehrlich and Ehrlich
1990, Ehrlich and Holdren 1971, Holdren and Ehrlich 1974).
I = PAT

These factors are not independent. For example, T varies as a nonlinear function of P, A, and rates
of change in both of these. This dependence is evident in the influence of population density and
economic activity on the choice of local and regional energy supply technologies (Holdren 1991a)
and on land management practices. Per-capita impact is generally higher in very poor as well as
in affluent societies.
In the I=PAT equation, the variable P represents the population of an area, such as the
world. Since the rise of industrial societies, human population has been increasing
exponentially. This has caused Thomas Malthus, Paul Ehrlich and many others to
postulate that this growth would continue until checked by widespread hunger and
famine
The United Nations project that world population will increase from 7.7 billion today
(2019) to 9.8 billion in 2050 and about 11.2 billion in 2100. These projections take into
consideration that population growth has slowed in recent years as women are having
fewer children. This phenomenon is the result of demographic transition all over the
world. Although the UN projects that human population may stabilize at around 11.2
billion in 2100, the I=PAT equation will continue to be relevant for the increasing human
impact on the environment in the short to mid-term future.
Environmental impacts of population
Increased population increases humans' environmental impact in many ways, which
include but are not limited to:
• Increased land use - Results in habitat loss for other species
• Increased resource use - Results in changes in land cover
• Increased pollution - Can cause sickness and damages ecosystems
• Increased climate change
• Increased biodiversity loss Affluence
The variable A in the I=PAT equation stands for affluence. It represents the average
consumption of each person in the population. As the consumption of each person
increases, the total environmental impact increases as well. A common proxy for
measuring consumption is through GDP per capita. While GDP per capita measures
production, it is often assumed that consumption increases when production increases.
GDP per capita has been rising steadily over the last few centuries and is driving up
human impact in the I=PAT equation.
Environmental impacts of affluence
Increased consumption significantly increases human environmental impact. This is
because each product consumed has wide-ranging effects on the environment. For
example, the construction of a car has the following environmental impacts:
• 605,664 gallons of water for parts and tires;
• 682 lbs. of pollution at a mine for the lead battery;
• 2178 lbs. of discharge into water supply for the 22 lbs. of copper contained in the
car.
The more cars per capita, the greater the impact. Ecological impacts of each product
are far-reaching; increases in consumption quickly result in large impacts on the
environment through direct and indirect sources.
Technology
The T variable in the I=PAT equation represents how resource intensive the production
of affluence is; how much environmental impact is involved in creating, transporting and
disposing of the goods, services and amenities used. Improvements in efficiency can
reduce resource intensiveness, reducing the T multiplier. Since technology can affect
environmental impact in many different ways, the unit for T is often tailored for the
situation to which I=PAT is being applied. For example, for a situation where the
human impact on climate change is being measured, an appropriate unit for T might be
greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP.
Environmental impacts of technology
Increases in efficiency from technologies can reduce specific environmental impacts,
but due to increasing prosperity these technologies yield for the people and businesses
that adopt them, technologies actually end up generating greater overall growth into
the resources that sustain us.

Through out history, and especially during the twentieth century, environmental degradation has
primarily been a product of our efforts to secure improved standards of food, clothing, shelter,
comfort, and recreation for growing numbers of people. The magnitude of the threat to the
ecosystem is linked to human population size and resource use per person. Resource use, waste
production and environmental degradation are accelerated by population growth. They are further
exacerbated by consumption habits, certain technological developments, and particular patterns of
social organization and resource management.
As human numbers further increase, the potential for irreversible changes of far reaching
magnitude also increases. Indicators of severe environmental stress include the growing loss of
biodiversity, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing deforestation worldwide,
stratospheric ozone depletion, acid rain, loss of topsoil, and shortages of water, food, and fuel-
wood in many parts of the world.
While both developed and developing countries have contributed to global environmental
problems, developed countries with 85% percent of the gross world product and 23% of its
population account for the largest part of mineral and fossil-fuel consumption, resulting in
significant environmental impacts. With current technologies, present levels of consumption by
the developed world are likely to lead to serious negative consequences for all countries. This is
especially apparent with the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and trace gases that have
accompanied industrialization, which have the potential for changing global climate and raising
sea level.
In both rich and poor countries, local environmental problems arise from direct pollution from
energy use and other industrial activities, inappropriate agricultural practices, population
concentration, inadequate environmental management, and inattention to environmental goals.
When current economic production has been the overriding priority and inadequate attention has
been given to environmental protection, local environmental damage has led to serious negative
impacts on health and major impediments to future economic growth. Restoring the environment,
even where still possible, is far more expensive and time consuming than managing it wisely in
the first place; even rich countries have difficulty in affording extensive environmental
remediation efforts.
The relationships between human population, economic development, and the natural
environment are complex. Examination of local and regional case studies reveals the influence
and interaction of many variables. For example, environmental and economic impacts vary with
population composition and distribution, and with rural-urban and international migrations.
Furthermore, poverty and lack of economic opportunities stimulate faster population growth and
increase incentives for environmental degradation by encouraging exploitation of marginal
resources.
Both developed and developing countries face a great dilemma in reorienting their productive
activities in the direction of a more harmonious interaction with nature. This challenge is
accentuated by the uneven stages of development. If all people of the world consumed fossil fuels
and other natural resources at the rate now characteristic of developed countries (and with current
technologies), this would greatly intensify our already unsustainable demands on the biosphere.
Yet development is a legitimate expectation of less developed and transitional countries. This can
be achieved, provided we are willing to undertake the requisite social change. Given time,
political will, and intelligent use of science and technology, human ingenuity can remove many
constraints on improving human welfare worldwide, finding substitutes for wasteful practices,
and protecting the natural environment.
Debates on Population Growth and Resource Scarcity:
Concerns about the balance between population and natural resources have existed ever since the
beginning of modern industrial expansion when, in 1798, they were articulately formulated by T.
R. Malthus (1766-1834) in the first edition of his An Essay on the Principle of Population.
Malthus's pessimistic conclusions-that "the power of population is indefinitely greater than the
power in the earth to produce subsistence for man" and that "this natural inequality ... appears
impossible in the way to the perfectability of society"-have been surely among the most cited
sentences of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The economist David Ricardo (1772-1823) raised another concern regarding agricultural
resources in The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817. He argued
that the new land brought into cultivation as population grows will be steadily less fertile, and
thus its produce increasingly costly.

Environmental Politics:

Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components:

1. The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment.

2. The examination of the political parties and environmental social movements.

3. The analysis of public policy-making and implementation affecting the environment.

Carrying Capacity:

Can be defined as:

The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available.
The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without reducing its
ability to support the same species in the future.
Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual environmental changes, perhaps
associated with climatic change or the successional development of ecosystems. More rapid changes in carrying
capacity may be caused by disturbances of the habitat occurring because of a fire or windstorm, or because of a
human influence such as timber harvesting, pollution, or the introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or
disease. Carrying capacity can also be damaged by overpopulation, which leads to excessive exploitation of
resources and a degradation of the habitat’s ability to support the species.
In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:

dN N1
= rN\1- ]
dt
Where;
N = population size, r= maximum growth rate,
K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and
dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be sustained biophysically under given
technological capabilities. When the population is at carrying capacity, there is no fluctuation in the birth or death
rates. But when there is an increase in the population size above the carrying capacity, there is an overutilization of
natural resources such as water, land, etc.

Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental problems. Furthermore, this increase
leads to the spread of many diseases. These diseases cause health problems. It increases death rates in comparison to
birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to fewer births. This causes the
population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once at carrying capacity, stops changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be assessed. Thus, there should be an
adequate use of natural resources, proper treatment of sewage, proper disposal of waste.

Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a specified social system and its
associated pattern of resource consumption. Social dimensions of carrying capacity include lifestyle aspirations,
epidemiological factors, and patterns of socially controlled resource distribution, the disparity between private and
social costs, the difficulty in formulating rational policy in the face of uncertainty, and various other features of
human sociopolitical and economic organization.
Sustainability and Carrying Capacity:

A sustainable condition, process, or activity is one that can be maintained without interruption,
weakening, or loss of valued qualities. Sustainability is thus a necessary and sufficient condition
for a population to be at or below carrying capacity. The wide appeal of sustainability as a
societal condition or goal reflects the moral conviction that the current generation should pass on
its inheritance of natural wealth-not unchanged but undiminished in potential-to support future
generations.
Carrying capacity and sustainability is a relative concept. Also, both are interrelated. Thus, the
conservation of ecology, biodiversity and other important aspects require the proper monitoring
of this concept. This must be done at respective intervals so that human beings are able to survive
and develop in an eco-friendly manner.
What are Natural Resources?
Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions.
Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind.These are the
resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of
humans. Common examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water, soil, stone, plants,
animals and fossil fuels.
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful
under conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the
earth, supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water and
geothermal power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the natural sciences.
Different Cultural Views about Nature:
• Our view of nature and the environment are culturally bound Western View of the Environment
Man as superior to other creatures.
God gave man dominion over plants and animals Garden of Eden story
Implicit theory of stewardship but freedom to use nature to improve life Non-Western View of
the Environment Man seen as part of nature, not separate from it or superior to it Nature viewed
in spiritual terms
Man shouldn’t seek to control nature but work with it, preserve it Gods or spirits may inhabit
nature See change a cyclical rather than linear Social responsibilities more important
Educated elites frequently share a more western view of the environment
Hindus worship various natural components as God, such as Surya Deva (Sun), Chandra Deva
(Moon), Jal Devata or Barun (water), Pipal tree, Tulsi (as the lord Bishnu), etc.
Various creatures are also worshipped in the Hindu tradition: Nag Devata (snake), Gau Mata
(cow as mother).
There is respectable place for various animals: dog, crow, ox, cow etc are treated with respect in
various Hindu festivals.
What are the Different Types of Natural Resources?
Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:

1. Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly are
called renewable resources. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these
resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are
not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources do not have
such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Resources
from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of
replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily compared
to non-renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
2. Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable nature
and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable resources. on-
renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are
the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective, resources are
non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a
good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is
extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some
resources naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these
being radio-active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these,
the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot
be recycled. Once they are completely used they take millions of years to replenish.Examples
include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in infinite Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed due to
quantity limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

 The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this planet.
So, it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater.
Initiative to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
4. Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation
and buildings
5. Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction
projects also increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world.

Cross Cultural Perspective on the Environment:

The term ‘cross-cultural’ refers to comparing or dealing with two or more different
cultures.
Cultural values influence attitudes to environment.
Culture is an inescapable aspect of any human phenomenon, including how people
shape environments, use them and interact with them.
There is relationship between culture and nature as reflected in the traditions of a
variety of places.
Different cultures attach meanings to environment or nature in different ways.
Humans through their various actions have dramatically changed the Earth, and our
attitudes towards Nature, formed at least in part through acceptance of certain pieces of
religious doctrine, are largely responsible.

Poverty and Environment:

Two of the most important global issues today are pervasive poverty and problems related to
environmental degradation. The causal factors are complex. Since the 1970s it has been almost
universally agreed that poverty and environmental degradation are inextricably linked. Holmberg
(1991) pointed out that the relationship between the environment and poverty is not so straight
forward. Insufficient attention had been paid to some spontaneous and field experience and that
there was even a possibility of conflict between the goals of poverty alleviation and
environmental protection.
The environment-poverty nexus is a two-way relationship. Environment affects
poverty situations in three distinct dimensions:
i. by taking sources of livelihoods of poor people,
ii. by affecting their health and
iii. by influencing their vulnerability.
On the other hand, poverty also affects environment in various ways:
i. by forcing poor people to degrade environment,
ii. by encouraging countries to promote economic growth at the expense of environment,
and
iii. by inducing societies to downgrade environmental concerns, including failing to channel
resources to address such concerns.
Effect of Poverty on Environment:
Internationally, there is a known correlation between poverty and environmental degradation.
Because of lack of money, education, and concern, poor families disregard the environment to
uphold a “survival mentality". Poor countries do not see the environment as priority because of
all the other problems happening within the society, so nothing is done to conserve.

The World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) wrote

(1987): "Poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore
futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that
encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality.” The links
between poverty and environment were also seen to be self-enforcing. The Commission also
wrote: “Many parts of the world are caught in a vicious downwards spiral: poor people are forced
to overuse environmental resources to survive from day to day, and their impoverishment of their
environment further impoverishes them, making their survival ever more difficult and uncertain.”
Poverty impacts the environment negatively. The definition of poverty is being unable to meet
one’s basic needs. Such needs include food, water, shelter, healthcare and education. Roughly
half the world’s people live in such conditions. Their focus is on obtaining the basic needs for
short-term survival. Many of these people are forced to deplete or degrade forests, rivers, fields,
and soil. These groups don’t have the privilege to be concerned about environmental impact.
Many poor people throughout the world die very prematurely from health problems as a result of
environmental degradation.

One such problem is a lack of access to properly sanitized facilities. More than a third of the
world’s population does not have adequate bathrooms. They have no choice other than to use
outdoor fields and streams for elimination. The result is that over a billion people obtain water
from sources that are contaminated from human and animal waste. A second problem would be
malnutrition. People living in poverty stricken environments do not receive sufficient amount of
nutrients for proper health. Many of these people die at a young age from normally treatable
illnesses. The third most common problem is respiratory illness. In poorer areas people rely on
burning wood or coal within their own homes as a means of cooking or just staying warm. Such
actions lead them to breathe in high concentrations of indoor air pollutants. The World Health
Organization states that about seven million people die each year from these conditions. About
two thirds of these people are children under the age of five.

Poverty among people puts stress on the environment whereas environmental problems cause
severe suffering to the poor. People, whether they be rich or poor, consume water, food, and
natural resources in order to remain alive. All economic activities are directly, indirectly or
remotely based on natural resources and any pressure on natural resources can cause
environmental stress. Environmental damage can prevent people, especially the poor, from
having good and hygienic living standards. As poor people rely more directly on the
environment than the rich for their survival, they are mostly on the receiving end of
environmental problems
Poverty often causes people to put relatively more pressure on the environment which results in
larger families (due to high death rates and insecurity), improper human waste disposal leading
to unhealthy living conditions, more pressure on fragile land to meet their needs,
overexploitation of natural resources and more deforestation. Insufficient knowledge about
agricultural practices can also lead to a decline in crop yield and productivity etc.
One of the biggest ways that the environment is affected by poverty is through deforestation.
Forests provide the world with clean air, in addition to working as “sink holes” that help reduce
the drastic climate changes seen in the world today. With the increasing level of deforestation
taking place, the environment is taking a heavy blow and finding it difficult to recover.
Impoverished communities, unaware of the errant, harmful ways in which they use natural
resources, such as forest wood and soil, are continuing the destructive cycle that spirals the
environment further downward.

Air pollution is another way in which poverty contributes to environmental degradation. As

mentioned above, poor communities lack the proper knowledge when it comes to production
techniques. Thus, the ways in which they use resources to help them survive are harmful to the
resources around them, and ultimately the world at large. Air pollution is one of the major
consequences of poor production techniques while water pollution is a result of poor water
management, once again due to lack of knowledge. Water pollution affects so many things
beyond the poor community itself. Water pollution deprives soil of nourishing elements, kills off
fish, and is extremely harmful to human health.

Because extreme poverty doesn’t always lend to widespread birth education, many poor women
lack the resources necessary to engage in birth control. Therefore, it is common for poor women
to continue having children well after they would have liked because of little to no access to
resources and education.

The more the global population grows, the more weight is placed on the environment. Every
human being consumes their share of resources from the environment, and with so many births
originating from poor communities, the burdens placed on the environment grow heavier and
heavier each day.
Effect of Environment on Poverty (Poor People)
On the other hand environmental problems add more to the miseries of poor people.
Environmental problems cause more suffering among them as environmental damage increases
the impact of floods and other environmental catastrophes. Soil erosion, land degradation and
deforestation lead to a decline in food production along with a shortage of wood for fuel
contribute to inflation. In short, the worst consequences of environmental deterioration, whether
they be economical, social, or related to mental or physical wellbeing, are experienced by poor
people.
A number of studies have been carried out on how both poverty and wealth have impacted on the
environment, resulting in a number of environmental threats such as degradation of the soil,
water and marine resources which are essential for life supporting systems, pollution which is
becoming health threatening, loss of biodiversity and global climatic changes which jeopardize
the very existence of life on the planet.
Effect of Affluence on the Environment:

Affluence affects the environment both positively and negatively. However, the negative effects
of affluence on the environment are far greater than those caused by poverty. People who live in
well-developed areas such Europe, Canada, and the US, or rapidly developing areas such as
China and India exist in high consumer societies. Such a lifestyle leads to unnecessary depletion
of resources. Such affluence has terrible consequences for the environment. G. Tyler Miller and
Scott E. Spoolman give us a more specific example of this disparity. “While the United States
has far fewer people than India, the average American consumes about 30 times as much as the
average citizen of India and 100 times as much as the average person in the world’s poorest
countries.” The environmental impact caused by one person in the US is far greater the average
environmental impact caused by someone in an undeveloped country.

The flip side is that affluence can also be a source of help for the environment. People living in
well-developed societies have the luxury to be more concerned about environmental impact.
Affluent societies have the financial means to invest in technological research that can reduce
pollution and other forms of consumer waste. Wealthier nations tend to have cleaner air and
water. The food supplies are also better sanitized which leads to longer life spans. Money has the
power to improve environmental status since it can finance scientific research. Wealthier
societies also generally have higher levels of education, which encourages people to demand that
governments and corporations be more environmentally friendly.

Gender Aspect of Food Security in Nepal

Food Security
Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is
considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.
The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all
times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active
life".
Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and
economic access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food
preferences. Household food security exists when all members have access to enough
food for an active, healthy life. Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to
future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors
including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.

Pillars of Food Security:

The WHO states that there are three pillars that determine food security: food
availability, food access, and food use and misuse. In 2009, the World Summit on Food
Security stated that the "four pillars of food security are availability, access, utilization,
and stability".
1. Availability
Food availability relates to the supply of food through production, distribution, and
exchange.
a. Food production: It is determined by a variety of factors including land ownership
and use; soil management; crop selection, breeding, and management; livestock
breeding and management; and harvesting. It can be affected by changes in rainfall
and temperatures. The use of land, water, and energy to grow food often competes with
other uses can affect food production. It is not required for a country to achieve food
security. Nations don't have to have the natural resources required to produce crops in
order to achieve food security, as seen in the examples of Japan and Singapore. ]
b. Food distribution: It involves the storage, processing, transport, packaging, and
marketing of food. Food-chain infrastructure and storage technologies on farms can
also affect the amount of food wasted in the distribution process. Poor transport
infrastructure can increase the price of supplying water and fertilizer as well as the price
of moving food to national and global markets. Around the world, few individuals or
households are continuously self-reliant for food. This creates the need for a bartering,
exchange, or cash economy to acquire food.
c. Exchange of Food: It requires efficient trading systems and market institutions,
which can affect food security. Per capita world food supplies are more than adequate
to provide food security to all, and thus food accessibility is a greater barrier to
achieving food security.
2. Access
Food access refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences
of individuals and households. The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights noted that the causes of hunger and malnutrition are often not a scarcity of food
but an inability to access available food, usually due to poverty. Poverty can limit access
to food, and can also increase how vulnerable an individual or household is to food
price spikes. Access depends on whether the household has enough income to
purchase food at prevailing prices or has sufficient land and other resources to grow its
own food. Households with enough resources can overcome unstable harvests and
local food shortages and maintain their access to food. There are two distinct types of
access to food:
a. Direct access: A household produces food using human and material resources.
b. Economic access: A household purchases food produced elsewhere.

Location can affect access to food and which type of access a family will rely on. The
assets of a household, including income, land, products of labor, inheritances, and gifts
can also determine a household's access to food.
3. Utilization
It refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household,
a variety of factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the
household. In order to achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must
be enough to meet the physiological requirements of each individual.
4. Stability
Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Food insecurity can be
transitory, seasonal, or chronic.
a. Transitory food insecurity: In this food insecurity food may be unavailable during
certain periods of time. At the food production level, natural disasters and drought result
in crop failure and decreased food availability. Civil conflicts can also decrease access
to food. Instability in markets resulting in food-price spikes can cause transitory food
insecurity. Other factors that can temporarily cause food insecurity are loss of
employment or productivity, which can be caused by illness.
b. Seasonal food: This insecurity can result from the regular pattern of growing
seasons in food production.
c. Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity: It is defined as the long-term, persistent
lack of adequate food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being unable to
acquire food to meet the needs of all members. Chronic and transitory food insecurity
are linked, since the reoccurrence of transitory food security can make households
more vulnerable to chronic food insecurity.
Gender inequalities, patriarchal norms, low social status, and lack of access to resources leads to
lower access to food and nutrition security among girls and women. Similarly, children, pregnant
women, lactating and nursing mothers will have specialised needs for food and nutrition. This is
not explicitly addressed while discussing food and nutrition security.
Traditionally, women are relegated to the role of caregiver and food manager in a household.
Women often allocate meals to others before themselves, hampering their own food intake. An
increase in family members owing to reverse migration from urban to rural or foreign migrants
has added the fear of placing lesser food on women’s plates given the fixed size of food
availability.
Women in agriculture comprise 57.2 percent of the total labour employed. But the contribution of
women in food production and security is hardly recognised due to the predominance of the
patriarchal norms, inequalities in land ownership, access and control of livelihood assets and poor
decision-making status. The situation has worsened now because the extension of the lockdown
during peak harvesting season resulted in the shortage of seeds, fertilisers and agricultural inputs
which may hinder agriculture production domestically.
Apart from this, children, pregnant women and lactating and nursing mothers who have
specialised needs for food and nutrition will suffer the most given the present situation.
According to 2016’s demographic and health survey, 17 percent of women of reproductive age
are thin or undernourished. If the women of reproductive age or lactating mothers and their
children do not get adequate nutrition, cases of malnutrition will increase. The scarring effects of
malnutrition will remain for a more extended period in life, and reversing the impact of
malnutrition can be very costly, if not impossible. Similarly, female-headed households are
generally food insecure due to disadvantages regarding access to land, labour market, access to
credit, discriminating cultural norms, restricted mobility and ‘double day burden’ on their heads.
Women’s access to adequate food security, both for themselves and their families is dependent,
not only on their economic status, but on their own health, education and social status within the
family
and in society. Women with low status tend to have weaker control over household resources,
tighter time constraints, less access to information and health services, poorer mental health and
lower self esteem. These factors are thought to be closely tied to woman’s own nutritional status
and the quality of care they receive and in turn to children’s birth weights and the quality of care
they receive Gender inequality is one of the drivers of food insecurity, as the consistent social and
economic marginalization of women and girls results in lower access to food and less autonomy
to make the right choices regarding feeding and care giving practices. Women in Nepal have on
average less access to education and employment opportunities, and less control over productive
resources than do men. In addition, women’s ownership of key resources like land and housing,
and their decision-making power within the household has traditionally been limited. Though
officially outlawed and punishable by fines and imprisonment, practices such as chhaupadi, the
physical isolation of women and girls during menstruation, persist in parts of the country. These
practices also deny women and girls a nutritious diet during this period, exacerbating nutrition-
related health issues. There has been some gradual progress made in evening out this gender
imbalance. The gender gaps in education, health and in political representation have improved
over time. Women’s ownership of fixed assets increased to about 20 % from 10.8 % in 2001.
These advances have signaled a lowering of gender inequalities, although stark regional
disparities still exist.
The present situation of food insecurity is the manifestation of the structural inequalities and
discrimination faced by women. The intersectionality of women and caste, class and geographical
locations further intensifies problems faced by women. Hence, addressing women’s food
insecurity should be seen from the perspective of gender empowerment. To address the food
insecurity arising from the current pandemic, targeted nutritional and food stamps should be
provided to pregnant and lactating women, widows, and single women. Similarly, priority
women at local level employment programmes and a smooth supply of essential foods can be
some areas where between different levels of government coordinate with each other. It is
imperative to have universal as well as targeted policies and programmes to address gender-
specific food insecurity.
Gender Aspect of Natural Resource Management:
Natural resources are fundamental to sustaining the human population because they serve as the
basis for many of the goods and services on which humans depend including food, energy,
clothes, manufacturing, medicine and sanitation. Across the world, the rural poor have the
greatest dependence on natural resources; there are over 1.3 billion subsistence farmers, hunters
and gatherers, waged farm labourers and fishers that require access to land, water and
plant/animal species for their livelihoods1 . Approximately 60 million indigenous people rely
fully on forests for survival; in developing countries, roughly 1.2 billion people depend upon
agroforestry farming systems to increase agricultural yields and make a living. The condition of
natural resources relates closely to the sustainability and quality of human livelihoods,
particularly within the developing world and for individuals living in harsh environmental
conditions.
As competition for natural resources grows, it is likely that the rural poor - particularly women
-will be hit the hardest.
Gender Inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Typically, women and men have different roles and responsibilities when it comes to the use
and management of natural resources, such as land, water, forests, trees, biomass (fuelwood,
dung, etc.), livestock and fisheries.
Women and girls tend to have responsibility for sourcing, collecting and transporting natural
resources for domestic purposes. In the majority of developing countries, men are more prone to
use natural resources for commercial purposes (agriculture, fishing, timber). For example:
In crop production, it is common for men to prioritise (market-orientated) cash crops for export,
whereas women agriculturalists tend to focus more on food crops for the household and
community (FAO et al., 2009; IFAD 2010).
In developing countries, national food security often rests upon women's production of food
crops (Open Society Foundations, 2014).
In nearly all developing countries, women and girls are the main individuals responsible for
collecting, transporting and managing water for domestic use (drinking, cleaning, etc.) (IFAD,
2012). Men and boys are likely to have other roles and priorities in relation to water supply and
sanitation, such as watering livestock and undertaking irrigated agriculture
■ Often, the domestic responsibilities of women and girls in relation to natural resources
management result in significant time burdens for them, undermining their ability to undertake
productive activities, such as education, decision-making and entrepreneurship.
Women spend up to 3-4 hours each day collecting household fuel . On average, women in many
developing countries are estimated to walk 6 km daily in order to collect water (UNFPA, 2002).
Women in women-headed households have highlighted water and fuelwood collection as one of
their most time-intensive responsibilities. (FAO/IFAD 2003, cited in FAO et al., 2009).
■ Women and men do not have the same rights and ability to access natural resources (land,
trees, water, animals, etc.). Although the situation differs, women generally do not have as many
ownership rights as men (SIDA, n.d.). Despite their role as food producers, women do not
normally own the land that they cultivate or have stable control (e.g. long-term lease) (ibid.). For
example, women may have land-use rights rather than ownership rights, or may be more
dependent on communal property (relative to men). These circumstances undermine women's
ability to influence the control of the land and its products, as well as to produce food,
accumulate income, gain access to agricultural credit and have expectations of long-term
stability.
■ Limited access to secure land tenure has a knock-on effect on women's ability to access other
natural resources, such as water and trees (IFAD, 2012; CIFOR, 2013). For instance, tree rights
are often linked to land rights. Due to having fewer formal land rights, women may have to travel
long distances to collect fuel, despite having local trees closer to their homes (on private land).
Alternatively, they may have to collect other types of fuel, such as dung and stalks.
■ Biodiversity loss and the growing competition over natural resources is likely to hit the rural
poor hardest, particularly women.
More than three-quarters (76%) of the world's extreme poor live in rural areas (World Bank and
IMF, 2013). Poor rural households in developing countries are often those that depend the most
upon local ecosystems - including the genetic diversity of natural resources - for their livelihoods.
Many lack the productive resources to cope with rapid changes to ecosystems (IFAD 2010).
Gender-based inequalities in access to land, credit, information, markets and other productive
resources put women on the frontline of these risks. For instance, in the division of resources,
women are often left with the most instable, marginal lands, which are particularly susceptible to
environmental shocks. Land degradation and deforestation also impacts upon common property,
on which many poor rural women rely for natural resources such as fuelwood, fodder and food.
In general, land and water degradation increase food scarcity, malnutrition and instability (all of
which affect the pool of natural resources).
■ Reduced access to natural resources can lead to significant rises in women's labour, such as
the distances they must travel and the amount of time they must spend collecting household food,
water and fuel (UNEP/CBD, 2010). Lower access to resources can also heighten risks to women's
health and security (for example, longer journeys can increase women's susceptibility to gender-
based violence; degradation of water can bring greater likelihood of contracting waterborne
diseases - such as cholera and diarrhea - during the process of collection). Land degradation can
bring additional social costs, such as the migration of men from rural communities, leaving
women to take on the traditional 'male responsibilities', but without the same ability as men to
access supporting resources (for example, financial services, technology, social networks)
(Lambrou and Laub 2004).
■ There are signs that natural disasters, to which women are particularly vulnerable, are
becoming more common. Long-term climate changes are expected to increase the incidence of
extreme weather events, such as droughts, heat waves and tropical cyclones (IPCC, 2007). There
are some signs to suggest that women are more vulnerable to these than men, largely due to social
norms influencing the construction of gender roles and overrepresentation of women amongst
vulnerable groups in society (e.g. the poor, the elderly) (Neumayer and Plumper, 2007). These
events also have an impact upon the pool of available natural resources.
Several Structural and Cultural factors causing gender inequalities in Natural Resource
Management
■ Legal systems (both formal and customary) of land ownership can discriminate against
women:
■ Women may face institutional barriers when seeking to exercise influence and control over
natural resources.
■ Socio-cultural norms and practices may undermine women's access to secure natural
resources. For example, in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, the bonojibi community traditionally
believe that the forest Goddess does not permit women to enter the forest, due to their impurity.
Such practices undermine women's power to collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (wild
honey, essential oils, etc.), which can be an important source of extra income for them (UNREDD
et al., 2013). Traditional practices can also undermine women's rights to water and land. For
instance, women farmers are often allocated the most marginal and vulnerable lands.
■ Social norms may also impact upon women's ability take full advantage of markets. Relative
to men, women may have trouble in taking full advantage of markets, for example due to lower
rates of literacy and limited access to private transport, information and commercial networks. In
some areas, women are more like to sell domestic crops in local markets, whereas men more
likely to focus on national/international markets.
Ways to address gender inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Make use and create demand for sex-disaggregated data, for example on land tenure and the
membership of forest user groups and water user associations.
■ Ensure that women’s needs and priorities are voiced, understood and addressed.
■ Avoid reinforcing gender inequalities, by ignoring the existing gender relations and power
disparities between women and men.
■ Plan gender-specific actions, to address problems relating more particularly to one or the
other gender, either as separate initiatives or as part of larger programmes. For instance, women-
focused enterprises and cooperatives can be an important way of strengthening women's position
in the market, especially their bargaining power (UNREDD et al., 2013).
■ Adopt longer term “transformative” perspectives, supporting women’s participation in
decision-making and changing prevalent negative attitudes on women’s leadership capacities
and social roles
■ Engage men, creating awareness on gender disparities and proving the benefits of
gender equality for communities.
Gender aspects of climate change
Global climate change is expected to have serious impacts on the world’s natural resources and
the livelihoods of those who depend on them. Climate related disasters and increasing climate
variability force people to adapt. Gender is an important factor in climate change debates and
particularly in adaptation to climate change. The relation between gender and climate change can
in simple terms be described as follows: 1. The poor are most vulnerable to climatic changes and
have the least capacity to adapt. As 70% of the poor is female, women will suffer
disproportionally. 2. Women are disproportionally affected by diseases and disasters, both as
persons as well as in their capacity as caretakers of family members; Climate change will have
major impacts on subsistence agriculture, because it has a relatively high dependence on natural
endowments; Climate change will have a major impact on water availability. Since domestic
water use does not tend to get priority (yet) over others forms of water use (irrigation, large scale
hydro, etc.), women will be disproportionally affected; Climate change will cause an increase in
malaria, and women are particularly vulnerable to malaria. Also, pregnant women are more
vulnerable to diseases in general, and climate change will increase the occurrence of diseases;
The same goes for disasters: women tend to be less protected, and therefore will suffer more
from the predicted increase in weather-related disasters. 3. Women play a much more important
role in domestic water provision, subsistence agriculture, post-disaster management. They have a
lot of practical knowledge about sustainable, small-scale land and water use, as well as of
disaster management. This presents and opportunity as well as a risk: Women have knowledge
that has not been explored yet, and not translated into policies. This knowledge is a non
recognised source of innovative ideas that will potentially increase adaptive capacities on local
as well as national levels; Current policy processes lack participation by women. Therefore,
these processes neglect a potential source of innovative knowledge. At the same time, by not
taking the potential and needs of women into account, they threaten to increase women’s
vulnerability to climate change, and decrease their adaptive capacities, e.g. by focusing on large-
scale, high-tech and centralised ‘solutions’ that do not allow female participation in management
and implementation.
Social Impact Assessment:
Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the
intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned
interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any social change processes invoked by
those interventions. Goldman and Baum (2000:7) define Social Impact Assessment
(SIA) as a method of analyzing what impacts actions may have on the social aspects
of the
Its environment.
primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and
human environment.
Advantages of SIA:

• Identifying Affected Groups: SIA helps in identifying people and groups who affect or
are affected by the project
Allying Fears and Winning Trust: SIA can help allay fears of affected groups and
build a basis of trust and cooperation which is so essential for successful
project implementation
 • Avoiding Adverse Impacts: SIA provides the basis for preparing mitigation
measures to avoid, reduce or manage adverse impacts
• Enhancing Positive Impacts: SIA preparation also helps identify measures to
maximize/share project benefits
• Reducing Costs: Addressing social impacts at an early stage helps to avoid
costly errors in future
• Getting Approval Faster. A well prepared SIA demonstrates that social impacts
are taken seriously and helps in getting project clearance faster
Stages in Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
A social impact assessment process, as WCD (2000) envisaged, should be built
on three elements:

• A detailed assessment of the socio-economic conditions of the people who may

be negatively affected (Cernea’s risk assessment model can be useful);
• A detailed study of the impacts in terms of the extent of displacement, the loss of
livelihoods, the second-order impacts as a result of submergence, construction
mitigation measures, downstream impacts, and host communities; and
• A detailed plan to mitigate these impacts and an assessment of the costs of such
measures.
40 This chapter outlines the steps involved in carrying out the Social Impact
Assessment process, and includes suggestions on how to follow them.
(IOCPGSIA 1994)
Step 1: Define the Impact Area
The first step is to define the Area of Impact. The size of the area varies according to a
project. A dam submerges a large, contiguous geographic area affecting several
villages. The impact from a highway and other linear projects occurs along the
corridor as small strips of land on either side of the road. The SIA team must get
a map showing clearly demarcated area that will be affected by the project (both
directly and indirectly).
In addition, field visit to the area needs to be undertaken to have a better
understanding of the geographic limits of the area and the people living there.
Step 2: Identify Information/Data Requirements and their Sources
Review the existing data on impacts likely to follow from the project to see if that
could be used for assessment purposes. This may provide disaggregated data
according to caste, religion, sex and other administrative categories, such as
persons below poverty line. The secondary should be checked as much for its
adequacy as for its reliability.
This review will also help identify the need for collection of additional primary data
through surveys and participatory methods.
Step 3: Involve All Affected Stakeholders
Share information and consult with all stakeholders. Stakeholders are people,
groups, or institutions which are likely to be affected by a proposed intervention
(either negatively or positively), or those which can affect the outcome of the
intervention. Develop and implement an effective public involvement plan to
involve all interested and affected stakeholders. The first step in developing
plans for consultation and participation is to identify stakeholders who will be
involved in the consultative processes. The basic questions to consider in identifying
stakeholders include:
• Who will be directly or indirectly and positively and negatively affected?
• Who are the most vulnerable groups?
• Who might have an interest or feel that they are affected?
• Who supports or opposes the changes that the project will produce?
• Whose opposition could be detrimental to the success of the project?
• Whose cooperation, expertise, or influence would be helpful to the success of the
project?
Step 4: Conduct Screening
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) process begins with screening. Screening is
undertaken in the very beginning stages of project development. The purpose of
screening is to screen out "no significant impacts” from those with significant impacts
and get a broad picture of the nature, scale and magnitude of the issues.
This helps in determining the scope of detailed SIA that would be subsequently carried
out.
Step 5: Carry Out Scoping in the Field
The next step is scoping. Essentially, this involves visit to the project site, and
consultation with all stakeholders. It is important to confirm their understanding of key
issues. On-site appreciation of impacts is indispensable for projects that cause
displacement on a large scale. The local knowledge can be invaluable in finding
alternatives that help avoid or at least reduce the magnitude and severity of adverse
impacts.
This is an initial assessment of likely impacts and not meant to determine the level of
impact. It should only identify all of the issues and affected groups to get ‘all the cards
on the table’
The next step is undertaking Social Impact Assessment and the following are the major
activities:
Step 6: Prepare a Socioeconomic Profile of Baseline Condition
To assess the extent of social impacts, it is necessary to assess the socio-economic
conditions of the affected people. This assessment generally involves conducting a
socioeconomic survey and a broad based consultation with all affected groups.
The socioeconomic profiling should not be restricted to adversely affected population.
The survey should include those who benefit from the employment and other economic
opportunities generated by the project.
Step 7: Survey of Host Population
This survey is carried out to see that in the host area enough land, income earning
opportunities and other resources exist to sustain additional population from the affected
area, and that this influx does not put pressure on local resources that the host
population may resent. The other important thing to see is that the people being
relocated and the hosts are socially from a similar socio-cultural background. The
similarity in background helps greatly reduce social/ethnic frictions.
Step 8: Identify and Assess the Impacts
Once the range of impacts that are predictable has been identified, the next step is to
determine their significance (that is, whether they are acceptable, require mitigation, or
are unacceptable). Since many impacts are not quantifiable, it is impossible to rank
them objectively. The community perceptions of an impact and those of the SIA team
are not necessarily the same. The affected people should therefore be consulted in
ranking impacts.
If impacts are found unacceptable, the SIA must clearly state that giving reasons.
Generally, the Social Impact Assessment is expected to result in specific mitigation
plans to address relevant social/resettlement issues and potential impacts.
Step 9: Develop a Mitigation Plan
Develop a mitigation plan to firstly avoid displacement, secondly to minimize it, and
thirdly to compensate for adverse impacts. The major contribution of a SIA study is to
help plan for, manage, and then mitigate any negative impacts (or enhance any positive
ones) that may arise due to a proposed project.
Step 10: Monitoring
After the mitigation plan has been implemented, it should be monitored. A monitoring
programme should be developed that is capable of identifying deviations from the proposed action and any important
unanticipated impacts. This should track project and program development and compare real impacts with projected
ones. It should spell out (to the degree possible) the nature and extent of additional steps that should take place when
unanticipated impacts or those larger than the projections occur.

Principles of SIA:
(1) : Involve the Diverse Public
It is important to first identify all potentially affected groups and individuals, and involve
them throughout the SIA process. This involvement must reach out to groups that are
routinely excluded from decision making due to cultural, linguistic and economic barriers
(lower caste and tribal groups, minorities and poor people). The involvement should be
truly interactive, with communication flowing both ways between the agency and
affected groups. This engagement will ensure that stakeholder groups understand what
the project is about and the possible ways it might affect them, both positive and
negative.
(2) : Analyze Impact Equity
Projects affect different groups differently. Impacts should therefore be specified
differentially for affected groups, not just measured in the aggregate. Identification of all
groups likely to be affected is central to the concept of impact equity. There will always
be winners and losers as a result of the decision to build a dam or undertake some other
development work. SIA should identify who will win and who will lose, but no groups and
individuals that are considered vulnerable due to race, ethnicity, caste, gender,
occupation, age or other factors should have to bear the brunt of adverse social
impacts.
(3) : Focus the Assessment
Often, time and resources available for doing social impact assessment are very limited.
In such circumstances, the best course is to focus on the most significant social
impacts, giving high priority to impacts identified by the people themselves. It is well
known that some groups low in power do not usually participate in project preparation
stage, but SIA must ensure that
their concerns are fully addressed. At the same time, the role of SIA practitioners in
impact analysis and assessment remains important. They have the expertise to help
prioritize issues, and are able to identify impacts often missed out by the people
themselves.

In addition to impacts on households, an accurate assessment of loss to the

community assets also needs to be carried out. This impact assessment should include
the following: (a) Common property resources, (b) Public structures, (c) Cultural
property, and (d) Infrastructure
(4) : Identify Methods and Assumptions and Define Significance
SIA should use easily understood methods and assumptions that are transparent
and replicable. The methods and assumptions used in the SIA should be made publicly
available. A brief summary should clearly describe the methods used, the assumptions
made, and the significance of impacts determined. This will allow decision makers as
well as affected people to evaluate the assessment process.
(5) : Provide Feedback on Social Impacts to Project Planners
The SIA findings are inputs for designing a project to mitigate negative impacts
and enhance positive impacts. The project design process must ensure that all affected
and interested persons get an opportunity to comment on the draft before it is given a
final shape.
(6) : Use SIA Practitioners
Trained social scientists using social science research methods alone will get the
best results. An experienced SIA practitioner will know what data to look for. His
familiarity with impacts that have occurred elsewhere under similar settings will be an
asset. It will be easier for him to identify the full range of impacts and then select
procedures appropriate for their measurement. The presence of a social scientist in the
interdisciplinary team will reduce the probability of any major social impact remaining
uncounted.
It is extremely important that the SIA practitioner be an independent social
scientist, not a part of the regulatory authority sponsoring the SIA study.
(7) : Establish Monitoring and Mitigation Programmes
The monitoring of important social impact variables and the mitigation
programmes is critical to the SIA process. The monitoring and mitigation should be a
joint responsibility of the project and the affected community.
A social impact assessment not only predicts the likely impacts, it should also
identify means to mitigate those adverse impacts. Mitigation includes: avoiding the
impact by not undertaking the project; or undertaking it with a modified design that
reduce the impact; or by compensating for unavoidable and/or irreducible impacts.
(8) : Identify Data Sources
Generally, SIAs draw on the following three sources of information: (a) Published
scientific literature, (b) Secondary data sources including various government
documents and official reports, and (c) Primary data from the affected area. All these
three sources are
important, but not all projects may need them in equal measure. Some SIAs may require
more primary data from the affected area than the published materials from journals or
books, for example.
The SIA can usefully consult previously published social science books, journal articles
that document knowledge of impacts and case studies from similar projects. The best
secondary data sources include census, compendium of statistics, land records data,
and several government planning and development reports. Survey research, informant
interviews, and participant observation are among the important primary data sources
that can be used to verify data collected from other sources. Often, project area people
are quite knowledgeable about the local socioeconomic situation and can provide a
better understanding of the broader range of likely impacts.
(9): Plan for Gaps in Data
Often, data relevant and necessary to carry out an assessment is not available yet the
SIA is to be carried out. In circumstances when information is incomplete or unavailable,
it should be made abundantly clear that assessment has been made in the absence of
relevant and necessary data, explaining why this could not be obtained.
Social Impacts:
Social Impacts are the changes that occur in communities or to individuals as a result of
an externally-induced change. IOCPGSIA (2003: 231) defines social impacts as "the
consequences to human populations of any pubic or private actions that alter the ways
in which people live, work, play, relate to one another, organize to meet their needs, and
generally cope as members of society. The term also includes cultural impacts involving
changes to the norms, values, and beliefs that guide and rationalize their cognition of
themselves and their society.” Social Impacts are both positive and negative.
Changes may effect: employment, income, production, way of life, culture, community,
political systems, environment, health and well-being, personal and property rights, and
fears and aspirations. These impacts can be positive or negative. In short, a social
impact is a significant improvement or deterioration in people’s well-being.
Examples of projects with significant social impacts include: dams and reservoirs
(disruption due to relocation), power and industrial plants (influx of work force, pressure
on infrastructure), roads and linear projects (dislocation of activity networks), and landfill
and hazardous waste disposal sites (seen as health risks).
Social/Cultural
• Break-up of community cohesion
• Disintegration of social support systems
• Disruption of women’s economic activities
• Loss of time-honoured sacred places of worship
• Loss of archeological sites and other cultural property Economic
• Loss of agricultural lands, tress, wells
• Loss of dwellings and other farm buildings
• Loss of access to common property resources
• Loss of shops, commercial buildings
• Loss of businesses/jobs
• Overall reduction in income due to above losses
Public Infrastructure and services
• Government office
buildings
• School buildings
• Hospitals
• Roads
• Street lighting