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‫ منابع اصلی‬:
- Fundamentals of Semiconductor Fabrication
Gary S. May, Simon M. Sze

-Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, 3rd Edition, part III

Simon M. Sze, Ming-Kwei Lee

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 ‫‪ :‬منابع تکمیلی‬

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Chapter 1:
Introduction

Chapter 1
Introduction

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‫‪Chapter 1:‬‬
‫‪Introduction‬‬

‫نقش صنعت الکترونیک و صنعت تولید ادوات نیمه‬

‫هادی در تولید ناخالص جهانی (‪)GWP‬‬

‫صنعت الکترونیک‪ :‬از سال ‪ 1998‬فروش جهانی از مرز یک‬

‫تریلیون دالر گذشت و تبدیل به بزرگترین صنعت در دنیا شد‪.‬‬
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Chapter 1:
Introduction

• The electronics industry surpassed the automobile industry in 1998: the sales volume of
the electronics industry will reach three trillion dollars and will constitute about 10% of
GWP by 2010.

• The semiconductor industry (a sub-set of the electronics industry) will grow an even
higher rate to surpass the steel industry in the early twenty-first century and to constitute
25% of the electronics industry in 2010.

• The multitrillion dollar electronics industry : dependent on the manufacture of

semiconductor integrated circuits(ICs).

• Fields: Solid-state computing, telecommunications, aerospace, automotive, and

consumer electronics industries device.

A basic knowledge of semiconductor materials, devices, and

processes is essential to the understanding of modern electronics.
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Materials

Electronic materials can be classified into three categories:

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Materials

• Ge : One of the first materials used in semiconductor device

fabrication

The first transistor was made of Ge (Developed by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley in 1947).

• Si : Since the early 1960's began to be used instead of the Ge

recognized as the most widely use material because of the advantages of the Si:

 Si can be easily oxidized to form a high-quality SiO2 insulator,

 SiO2 is an excellent barrier layer for the selective diffusion steps
needed in IC fabrication.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Materials

 Si has a wider bandgap than Ge, which means that Si devices can
operate at a higher temperature than their Ge, counterparts.

 Si is a very inexpensive and abundant element in nature.

• GaAs:
• A higher electron mobility than Si.
• High speed circuits (>1 GHz)

Possesses severe processing limitations:

 Less stability during thermal processing

 A poor native oxide
 High cost
 Much higher defect densities
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

• MOSFET :
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistor

• MESFET:
metal-semiconductor field-effect
Transistor

• MODFET:
modulation-doped field-effect
Transistor

a
Denotes a two-terminal device
; otherwise, it is a three- or four
terminal device.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

1947:
 Invention of point
contact transistor

 Shockley and his

coworkers invented the
first solid-state
amplifier, called the
“point contact
transistor”

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

1959 : The first monolithic IC of a flip-flop Circuit containing six devices.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

1960:
 
 Kahng & Atalla invented MOSFET.

 Gate length of 20 um,Gate oxide

thickness of 100 nm.

current MOSFET size: deep-submicron

level
The first metal-oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistor. Si and SiO2 Recognize a combination of
the most important matter

MOSFET and associated integrated

circuit occupy a 90% of semiconductor
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

1962:

 Visible Laser Light.

 Semiconductors can emit light in response

to electric currents.

Semiconductor Laser

16 LED
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

1969:

Charge Coupled Devices

(CCD).

A linear array of MOS

capacitors could be used as
charge-storage and transfer
devices.

Widely used in video camera

and the optical sensor element.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices
1980s ~ 1990s:

Microchip Manufacturing
Technology.

For high speed:

bipolar transistors

For process simplicity:

pMOS or nMOS

For low power dissipation:

CMOS
The first microprocessor.
A four-bit microprocessor (Intel 4004)
Chip size of 3 mm by 4 mm,
2300 MOSFETs.
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P-channel polysilicon gate process using an 8-µm design rule.
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor Devices

2000s:

Nano-Technology

Nanotube electronics

Molecular electronics

Quantum computer

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor manufacturing processes history
Comparison of sizes of semiconductor process nodes

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor manufacturing processes history

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Semiconductor manufacturing processes history

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
KEY SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

• CVD :
Chemical Vapor Deposition

• CMOS:
Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor field-effect transistor

• DRAM:
Dynamic Random Access Memory
• MOCVD:
Metal Organic CVD

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
KEY SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

1918 (Czochralski crystal growth): Liquid-solid monocomponent growth technique,

most of the crystal growth (Si wafer) Created.

1925 (Bridgman crystal growth): Method of a GaAs and its related compound
semiconductor growth.

1957 (Photolithography by Andrus):

The pattern transfer using an photosensitive etch-resistant polymer.
35% of IC manufacturing costs.

1957 (oxide masking method by Frosch & Derric k):

Find the oxide layer will prevent the diffusion of impurity atoms in silicon.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
KEY SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES
1957 (Sheftal): Development of Epitaxial growth process based on CVD
forming a semiconductor crystal as a thin film over a floor having the same crystal lattice structure.

1959 (Kilby): IC development

Hybrid circuit 1 bipolar transistor, 3 resistors and 1 capacitor made in Ge and connected by wire
bonding.

1959 (Noyce): monolithic integrated circuits

Fabricating all devices in a single semiconductor substrate and connecting the devices by Al
metallization.

1960 (Hoerni): planar process invention

1. An oxide layer was formed on silicon surface.
2. A part of oxide layer was removed and a window was opened using lithography process .
3. Impurity atoms will diffuse only through the silicon (not oxide layer).
4. p-n junction will formed in the oxide window area.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
KEY SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

1969 (Kerwin): Poly silicon self-aligned gate process suggestion:

 Improved reliability.
 parasitic capacitor of the device decreases.

1969 (Manasevit Simpson): Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) was
developed
Critical process technology for epitaxial growth of compound semiconductors such as
GaAs.

1971 (Cho): Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) proposed.

1971 (Hoff et al.) : Development of the first microprocessor.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
KEY SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES

1989 (Davari): Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)

 Developed to planarize the interlayer dielectric or the like by Global

planarization
 The core technology of the interlayer wiring.

1993 (Paraszezak): Copper integration

 At submicron dimensions: Al suffers from electromigration at high electrical

current.
 Cu wiring was introduced (applies to the size of the wiring 100nm).

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

Planar technology: extensively used to IC manufacturing

1. Oxidation

2. Lithography and Etching

3. Diffusion and ion implantation

4. metallization

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

1. Oxidation:

 Development of a high quality silicon dioxide (SiO2) has helped to

establish the dominance of Si in the production of commercial ICs.

 SiO2 function as

 An insulator in a number of device structures.

 Barrier to diffusion or implantation during device fabrication.

 There are two oxidation methods:

 Dry oxidation: Thin oxides in a device structure (good Si-SiO2 interface)

 Wet oxidation: Thicker layer (higher growth rate)

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

2. Lithography and Etching:

Schematic flow diagram of

integrated circuit fabrication.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

2. Lithography and Etching (cont.):

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

3. Diffusion and ion implantation:

 Diffusion:
The impurity moves into the semiconductor crystal by solid-
state diffusion.

 Ion implantation:
Impurity is introduced into the semiconductor by accelerating
the impurity to a high energy level and then implanting the
ions in the semiconductor.

The SiO2 layer serves as a barrier to impurity.

• Due to lateral diffusion of impurities or lateral straggle of implanted ions,

the width of the p-region is slightly wider than the window opening.
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

3. Diffusion and ion implantation (cont.):

• Impurity doping is the introduction of controlled amounts of impurity dopants into
semiconductor.

• Key method of impurity doping:

– Diffusion
– Ion Implantation

• Profile of the dopant distribution:

• Determined mainly by:

– Temperature
– Diffusion time

Comparison of (a) diffusion and (b) ion implantation

techniques for the selective introduction of dopants
into the semiconductor substrate
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

• A schematic of ion Implanter:

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

4. Metallization:

 Ohmic contact
 Interconnection

 Process:
 PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition)
 CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition)

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 Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

Thin-film Deposition:
Evaporation:
 A film is deposited by the condensation of
the vapor on a substrate which is maintained
at lower temperature than that of the vapor.
 All metals vaporize when heated to
sufficiently high temperature.
 Heating method :
 Resistive
 Inductive (RF)
 Electron bombardment(e-gun)
 Laser heating
 be used to deposit an alloy or a mixture of two or more materials
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

Thin-film Deposition:
Sputtering:
 The target material is bombarded by energetic ions to release
some atoms
 These atoms are then condensed on the substrate to form a film
be applicable to all materials:

 Metals
 Alloys
 Semiconductors
 Insulators

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sputtering system
Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

Thin-film Deposition (Cont.):

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD):
Invariably the CVD reactions are surface catalyzed, preferentially
taking place on the surface of wafers inserted into the gas stream.

CVD types:
– APCVD(Atmospheric Pressure CVD): be performed in relatively
simple systems.
– LPCVD(Low-Pressure CVD): offering comparable kinetics with
improved uniformity and less gas consumption.
– PECVD(Plasma-Enhanced CVD): the electrons in the plasma
impart energy to the reaction gases.
 Enhancing the reactions and permitting very low deposition temperatures.
 CVD is used to produce the masking and intermetallic dielectric films.
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

Thin-film Deposition:
CVD (Cont.):

Cutaway view of a radiantly heated barrel-type reactor

employed in both CVD processes and Si epitaxy.
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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

 Example:
A p-n junction fabrication:

a) A bare n-type Si wafer.

b) An oxidized Si wafer by dry or wet oxidation.

c) Application of resist.

d) Resist exposure through the mask.

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Chapter 1:
Introduction
Basic steps in the manufacturing process

A p-n junction fabrication (cont.):

a) The wafer after the development.

b) The wafer after SiO2 removal.

c) The final result after a complete

lithographic process.

d) A p-n junction is formed in the

diffusion or implantation process.

e) The wafer after metallization.

f) A p-n junction after the complete

processes.
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