Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types
1.3 Historical Development
1.4 Elements of a Bridge
Project
1.5 Design Objectives
1.6 Design Philosophy
1.1 General Introduction
A bridge is a structure providing passage over
an obstacle
The obstacle may be a river, a valley, a road
or a railway line
The passage may be for a highway, railway
traffic, pedestrian, a canal or pipe line
1.1 General Introduction Contd. . . .
Due to high flood and absence of bridges during rainy season
courts, schools and other public activities are terminated
Thus, building a bridge will connect people separated during
rainy season
In this regard, bridges have a unique attribute of connecting
different people
Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil
engineering calling for expertise in many areas: structural
analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection,
surveying, runoff calculation and methods of construction
Components of a bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types
Slab bridges
Slab Stringer bridges – Temcha river bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Temcha bridge from below
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Arch bridge: example is Abay bridge on Goha
Tsion – Dejen road
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
West Lilac, California, overpass arch
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Truss arch-New River gorge bridge, USA
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Truss bridge: New Orleans through truss bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Cable stayed bridge: Hidassie bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Suspension bridge: Brooklyn bridge, New York
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Movable bridge
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Four level directional interchange
1.2 Overview of Bridge Types Contd. . .
Interchange in San Diego
1.3 Historical Development
The Historical development of bridges is closely
linked with the history of human civilization
Nature fashioned the first bridges
– Tree fallen accidentally across a stream is the earliest
beam type bridge
– The natural rock arch formed by erosion of loose soil
below is the earliest form of arch bridges
– Creepers hanging from tree to tree that allow monkeys to
cross were for runners of suspension bridges
1.3 Historical Development Contd. . . .
Man imitated nature and started to build bridges
Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms
of bridges
Based on structural action, there are four basic types
of bridges: beam, cantilever, suspension and arch
bridges.
Live Loads Contd . . .
1.4 Elements of a Bridge Project
Design of bridges requires collection of
extensive data which is then used in
reviewing possible options and narrowing
down to a short list of bridge types
Checklist of items to be included in work
plan (typical in planning a bridge project)
include the followings
Elements of a Bridge Project
Feasibility Phase – determines if the bridge is viable or not
Assembly of design criteria – focus at establishing
design Standards & data collection
Design phase – performs design per the established design
standard & data collected
Construction phase – implementation of the designed works
Performance phase – operational and maintenances
Feasibility Phase:
Data collection (Maps & condition survey)
Topographical surveys
Hydrological survey & information
Geological and geotechnical information
Site investigation requirements for soil and rock evaluation
Meteorological and aerodynamic data
Assembly of basic criteria
Likely budget
Assembly of design criteria:
Data and properties on the material to be used including
steel, concrete, timber, masonry,
Foundation considerations;
Hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
Loading and design criteria;
Clearance height and width (such as for navigation or
traffic);
Criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
Hazards such as impact, accident;
Assembly of design criteria: contd . . .
proximity to other engineering works
functional requirements;
transportation and traffic planning;
highway and/or railway engineering aspects;
drainage requirements;
provision for services (water, sewage, power,
electricity, telephone, communications links)
design life and durability considerations
Design phase:
Choice of bridge:
Detailed design of bridge including
superstructure, foundations & substructure;
Production of drawings and documentation,
Preparation of quality assurance plan;
Estimation of cost and program
Construction phase:
contractual matters;
construction methods;
budget and financial control;
quality control;
supervision of construction;
commissioning;
operating, inspection and maintenance schedules
for each part of the work.
Performance phase:
Obligations of owner;
Management of facility;
Inspection, maintenance and repair;
Rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements
(change of loading, widening, change of use and
durability aspects);
Decommissioning and demolition
1.5 Design Objectives
The objectives in a bridge design are: safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics
Safety is ensured by requirements of structural
induced stresses & strengths of the materials
Serviceability consists of satisfying requirements
of deformation, durability, inspect-ability,
maintainability and ride-ability
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Deformation - excessive deformations that cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects
should be avoided
Durability - contract documents specify quality of
materials to be used and standards of fabrication
and erection of elements to ensure durability
Inspect-ability - inspection ladders, walkways,
catwalks and covered access holes will be provided
where other means of inspection are not practical
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Maintainability- structural systems whose
maintenance is expected to be difficult should be
avoided
Ride-ability- the deck of the bridge will be designed
to permit smooth movement of traffic. The number
of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Economy - structural types, span lengths and
materials should be selected based on cost. The
cost of future expenditures during the projected
service life of the bridge should also be
considered
Constructability – only bridge types that can be
constructed using available methods, equipment
and machineries should be designed
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Aesthetics – buildings are designed by Architects
and bridges are designed by Civil Engineers. Bridges
serve for 100yrs or more and therefore should
– complement their surroundings
– be graceful in form and present an appearance of adequate
strength.
It is worthwhile to make every bridge have an
appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship
Aesthetic techniques that may be used to improve
appearance are: Proportions, Pleasing Shapes and
Compatibility
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Proportions
– all the members should bear a pleasing relationship
to each other
– columns should not be slender nor superstructures
too heavy
– span lengths should be chosen carefully
– The bridge should look like it was designed as a
whole, not as a lot of individual parts glued together
1.5 Design Objectives Contd . . .
Pleasing Shapes
– avoid stereotyped round or square columns and flat
soffits to improve appearance
– Make all columns or piers of the same size for
aesthetics and reusability of formwork
– Use ledges to break large expanses of concrete
– Slope the sides of box girders back under the
bridge and give the edges a fillet to diminish the
apparent depth
1.5 Design Objectives Cont . . .
Compatibility – bridges should fit their surroundings, they
should look they belong to the surrounding
Order of importance:
- horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the
environment
- superstructure type (girder, arch, etc)
- pier placement
- abutment placement and height
- superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth)
- pier shape
- abutment shape, parapet and railing details, surface colors and
texture and ornament.
1.6 Design Philosophy
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .
The different limit states may be defined now
– Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength
and stability, both local and global, are provided to
resist the specified statistically significant load
combinations that a bridge is expected to be subjected
to in its design life
– Service limit state – is restrictions on stress,
deformation and crack width under regular service
conditions
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .
Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit
state is restrictions on stress range as a result of a
single design truck occurring at the number of
expected stress range cycles. The fracture limit state
is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.
Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the
structural survival of a bridge during a major
earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle,
vessel, possibly under scoured conditions.
1.6 Design Philosophy Contd . . .
Ductility – ductile structures give ample warning
before they lose load carrying capacity where as
brittle structures collapse without giving warning.
Redundancy – indeterminate structures survive
overloads and extreme events due to multiple load
paths and redistribution of internal forces
