STATISTICS APPLIED TO RESEARCH

Presentation of Data
Presentation of data refers to an exhibition or
putting up data in an attractive and useful manner
such that it can be easily interpreted.
The three main forms of presentation of data
are:
Textual Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Graphical
Presentation
 Textual Presentation
• All the data is presented in the form of text, phrases,
or paragraphs.
• It involves enumerating importa
n t characteristics, emphasizing significant figures
and identifying important features of data.

• Text is the principal method for explaining

findings, outlining trends, and providing
contextual information.
 Example:
A researcher is asked to present the performance of a section in
the statistics test. The following are the test scores:
34 42 20 50 17 9
50 18 35 43 50 23
37 38 38 39 39 38
24 29 25 26 28 27
49 in
The data presented 48textual form
46 would
45 be45 46
like this:
In the statistics class of 30 students, 3 obtained the perfect
score of 50. Eleven students got a score 40 and above,
while only 3 got 19 and below. Generally, the students
performed well in the test with 16 or 53.3% getting a
passing score of 38 and above.
 Advantage of Textual
Presentation
◆ The data would be more interpreted.

◆ Can help in emphasizing some

important points in data.
◆
Small sets of data can be easily
presented.
 Take Note!

◆ Keep your paragraphs simple and short.

◆ Always make sure that the readers are
provided with additional explanations about
the relevance of the figures and its
implications.
 Tabular Presentation:

• It is a systematic and logical arrangement of data

in the form of Rows and Columns with respect to
the characteristics of data.
•A table is best suited for representing individual
information and represents both quantitative and
qualitative information.
 Advantage of Tabular
Presentation
◆ More information may be presented.
◆ Exact values can be read from a table to
retain precision.
◆ Flexibility is maintained
without distortion of data.
◆
Less work and less cost are required in
the preparation.
Parts of the Table

https://byjus.com/commerce/tabular-presentation-of-data/
 Preparing Tables
An ideal table should consist of the following main
parts:
A. Title: The title must tell as simply as possible what is
in thetable. It should answer thequestions:
◆ Who?
What
◆ are the data?
Where
◆ are the data from?
When?
◆

B. Boxhead: It contains the captions or

column headings.
C.Stubs: The row captions are known as the stub.
D. Footnotes: Footnotes are given at the foot of
the table for explanation of any fact or
information included in the table which needs
some explanation.
E.Sources of Data: We should also mention the
source of information from which data are
taken.
F. Body: The main part and it contains the actual
data.
 General Rule of Tabulation

◆ A table should be simple.

◆
Proper and clear headings forcolumns and
rows are necessary.
◆ Suitable approximation may be adopted and
figures may be rounded
◆ off.
The unit of measurement should be well defined.
◆ If the observations are large in numbers they can be
broken into two or three tables.
 Example:
Simple or One – Way Table
 Example:

Two – Way
Table
How to Construct Frequency
Distribution Table?
A frequency distribution list each
category of data and the number of
occurrences for each category of data.
 Example: Use the “Sample Data
file”.

Solution:
To answer this question we need to construct a frequency
distribution to determine how many female and male
respondents participated in the study.
Procedure in Constructing Frequency Table
for Qualitative Data

To construct the frequency distribution using

excel use the command:
=frequency(data_array,bins_array)

Then Ctrl → Shift →Enter

{=frequency(data_array,bins_array)}
 Final Output

Table 1 shows the frequency and percentage distribution of

the respondents in terms of sex. It can be gleaned from the
table that, out of 128 respondents considered in the study, 65
or 50.8% are male and 63 or 49.2% are female.
Organize Quantitative Data in Table

Classes are categories into which data are

grouped. When a data set consists of a large
number of different discrete data values or
when a data set consists of continuous data, we
create classes by using intervals of numbers.
Age Number
(in thousands)
Sample Table 25 - 34 14,482
35 - 44 14,156
45 - 54 13,801
55 - 64 12,123
65 - 74 7,010
Organize Quantitative Data in Table
 Make sure that the classes do not overlap.
This is necessary to avoid confusion as to
which class a data value belongs. Also,
make sure that the class widths are equal
for all
classes. Upper Class Limit
Lower Class Limit Age
Number
The class widthis the 25 - 34
(in thousands)
14,482
difference between 35 - 44 14,156
consecutive lower class 45 - 54 13,801

limits. 55 - 64 12,123

65 - 74 7,010
 Organize Continuous Data in Table
 One exception to the requirement of equal
class widths occurs in open-ended tables.
A table is open ended if the first class has
no lower class limit or the last class has
no upper class limit.

Scores Frequency

 Sample 10 - 19 25
Table
20 - 29 36
30 - 39 40
40 and over 12
Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class Limit
of the First Class and Class Width
◆Choosing the Lower Class Limit of the First
Class
Choose the smallest observation in the data set
or a convenient number slightly lower than the
smallest observation in the data set.
For example, the smallest observation is
10.2. A convenient lowerclass limit of the
first class is 10.
 Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class Limit of
the First Class and Class Width
◆ Determining the Class Width
• Decide on the number of classes. Generally, there
should be between 5 and 20 classes. The smaller the
data set, the fewer classes you should have.
•Determine the class width by computing

xmax − xmin
cw =
nc
cwis theclass width
nc is thenumber of classes
Round this value up to a convenient
Take Note!

Creating the classes for summarizing continuous

data is an art form. There is no such thing as the
correct frequency distribution. However, there can
be less desirable frequency distributions. The
larger the class width, the fewer classes a
frequency distribution will have.
Procedure in Constructing Frequency Table
for Quantitative Data
Step
1. Set an interval or range for your data. It is needed
forthe“BIN RANGE”.
2. Click “DATA” on the menu bar and Click “DATA
ANALYSIS” on the tool bar
3. The dialog box “DATA ANALYSIS” will appear
and choose “HISTOGRAM” on the dialog box then
click OK.
 Procedure in Constructing
Frequency Table
Steps
4. Highlight your data forthe“INPUT RANGE”.
5. Highlight your data forthe“BIN RANGE”.
6. Click thebox of “LABELS IN FIRST ROW”
then click “OK”.
7. The result will appear on the new worksheet of the
excel file. Get thePercentage and total.
 Example: Use the “Sample Data
file”.

Solution:
To answer this question we need to construct a frequency
distribution.
First, create your Bin Range based on your set interval.

Get the

}
upper limit
of the
interval
except on
the last
interval.
Highlight the column “GRADES” for Input Range,
and highlight the column “Bin Range”.
Final Output
 Example:
Identify problems with the following table.
 Answer:
◆ Useless Information – Don’t show decimals if they
are not needed.
PoorAlignment – Make sure alignment makes
◆

sense.
• Don’t center numbers, always right justify– try
to align decimal points.
• Consider the appropriate placement of row titles.

Difficult to Read – Use commas used when

◆

the number exceeds a thousand.

Exercises:
Review the table and consider questions such as the
following.
Origin / Rating Poor Needs Satisfactory V Good Excellent Total
Improvement
External 0% 2% 12% 19% 9% 41%
Internal 4% 8% 15% 23% 9% 59%
Grand Total 4% 10% 27% 41% 17% 100%

1. What percentage of the employees originated from within the

organization?
2. What percentage of the employees are both internal and rated
‘Very Good’?
3. What percentage of the employees received ‘Needs
Improvement’ or ‘Poor’?
4. What category contains the greatest number of employees?
 Exercises:
Consider the above Frequency Distribution of
Salaries.
Salary Frequency Percentage
41,000 - 50,000 1 1%
51,000 - 60,000 20 13%
61,000 - 70,000 53 35%
71,000 - 80,000 43 29%
81,000 - 90,000 26 17%
91,000 - 100,000 6 4%
101,000 - 110,000 1 1%
1.What percentage of the employees earns less than or
Total 150 100%
equal 80,000?
2.What is the salary range of values?
3.What is a mid-range of salaries?
4. What salary category includes the most employees?
 Graphical Presentation
A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data
◆ at a glance, facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends
and relationships within the data such as changes over
time, and correlation or relative share of a whole.

◆ It is considered an important medium of communication

because we are able to create a pictorial representation of
the numerical figures.
◆

Suited when we need to show the results of the study to

nonprofessionals and or people who dislike numbers and
too lengthy texts.
 Bar Graph
◆ The bar chart is one of the most common
methods of presenting data in a visual form.
◆ Its main purpose is to display quantities in the
form of bars.
◆ A bar chart consists of a set of bars whose heights
are proportional to the frequencies that they
represent.
◆ It is use to organize discrete data.
 Example: Simple Bar Graph
The simple bar chart is used for the case of one
variable only.
 Multiple Bar Graph\ Grouped
Example: Column Chart
The multiple bar chart is an extension of a simple bar chart
when there are quantities of several variables to be displayed.
The bars representing the quantities for the different variables
are piled next to one another for each attribute. The figure
becomes very cumbersome when there are too many variables
and components.
 Component Bar Graph/ Subdivided
Example: Column Chart
In this type of bar chart, the components (quantities) of each
variable are piled on top of one another. It saves space as
compared to a multiple bar chart. One of the disadvantage of
this graph is that it is not always easy to compare size of the
components, or parts.

It is used to
represent data in
w h i c h th e to t a l
magnitude is divided
into different or
components.
Take Note!

Bar graphs may also be drawn with

horizontal bars. Horizontal barsare are
preferable when category names
lengthy.
 Histogram
◆ It is constructed by drawing rectangles for each
class of data. The height of each rectangle is
the frequency or relative frequency of the
class. The width of each rectangle is the same
and the rectangles touch each other.

◆ It is a graph used to present quantitative

data, is similar to the bargraph.
◆ It is use to organize continuous data.
 Example:
Histogram

https://newonlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat500/lesson/1/1.6/1.6.2
Exercises:
Which onedo you think i s more
informative? Why?
 Pie Chart
◆ It is a circle divided into sectors. Each sector
represents a category of data.The area of each
sector is proportional to the frequency of the
category.
◆ Pie charts are typically used to present the
relative frequency of qualitative data. Inmost
cases the data are nominal, but ordinal data
can also be displayed in a pie chart.
 Example:
Pie Chart
 When should a bar graph or a pie
chart be used?
◆ Pie charts are useful for showing the division
of all possible values of a qualitative variable
into its parts.
◆ Bar graphs are useful when we want to
compare the different parts, not necessarily
the parts to the whole.
 Line Graph
◆ A graph that shows information that is
connected in some way (such as change over
time)
◆ Line segments are then drawn connecting the
points. It is use to organize continuous data.
Very useful in identifying trends in the data
◆ over time.
Example: Simple Line Graph
The simplest of line graphs is the single line graph, so
called because it displays information concerning one
variable only, in terms of its frequencies.
Example: Multiple Line Graph
Multiple line graphs illustrate information on
several variables so that comparison is possible
between them.
 Scatter Diagrams
◆ S c a t t e r d i a g ra m s , a l s o k n o w n a s
scatterplots, are used to investigate the
relationship between two variables.
◆ If it is suspected that a causal (cause-effect)
relationship exists between two variables,
inspection of a scatterplot may well provide us
with an answer.
Example: Scatter Plot
In Scatter plot, we normally have an independent
(explanatory) variable, also known as a predictor, and a
dependent (response) variable to show the relationship of
these two variables.
Box and Whiskers Diagram
◆
Also known as boxplots, are specially designed to
display dispersion and skewness in a distribution.
◆
It can be drawn either horizontally or vertically on
graph. One axis is scaled to accommodate for the
values of the observations while the other has no
scale given that the width of the box is irrelevant.
The boxplot is applicable for both discrete and
◆
continuous data.
Parts of Box Plot

Q1-1 .5*IQR Q3+1.5*IQR

Example: Box Plot
It can also be use in comparison of different data
setsand to determine outliers.

niversity of the Philippines

ience
 Guidelines for Constructing Good
Graphics
◆ Title and label the graphic axes clearly,
providing explanations if needed. Include units
of measurement and a data source when
appropriate.
◆ Avoid distortion.
◆ Minimize the amount of white space in the
graph. Use the available space to let the data
stand out. If you truncate the scales, clearly
indicate this to the reader.
 Guidelines for Constructing Good
Graphics

◆ Avoid clutter, such as excessive gridlines and

unnecessary backgrounds or pictures.
◆
Don’t distract the reader. Avoid
◆
three dimensions.
◆ Do not use more than one design in the same
graphic. Let the data speakfor
themselves.
Exercises:
What features of the ‘Good Presentation’
makeit better than the ‘Bad Presentation’?
Exercises:
What features of the ‘Good Presentation’
makeit better than the ‘Bad Presentation’?
Take Note!
No matter how well manipulated, the information
derived from the raw data should be presented in
an effective format, otherwise, it would be a great
loss for both authors and readers.
Planning how the data will be presented is essential
before appropriately processing raw data.
 References
https : / / pre z i . c o m / r i rrc a 9 c kui z / te x tua l
- presentation-of-data/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/economics/
presentation-of-data/textual-and-tabular-
presentation-of-data/
Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by Michael
Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition