CSIT 428

Wireless Systems and Networks

Lecture 2 – Radio Frequency Communications

Lecturer: Prof F.A. Katsriku

Contact Information: [email protected]

College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2014/2015 – 2016/2017
 Goals and Objectives

• At the end of the session, the student will be

able to:
– List the components of a radio system
– Describe the factors that affect the design of a radio
system
– Discuss why standards are beneficial and list the major
telecommunications standards organizations
– Explain the radio frequency spectrum

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 2

 Session Outline
• Topics to be covered in this session are:
– Components of a Radio System
– Multiple Access Technologies
– Transmission Direction
– Understanding Standards
– Telecommunications Standards Organizations
– Regulatory Agencies
– Radio Frequency Spectrum

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 3

 Components of a Radio System
• Components include:
– Filters
– Mixers
– Amplifiers
– Antennas

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 4

 Filters
• Filter: removes unwanted RF signals
• RF filter
– Either passes or rejects a signal based on frequency
• Types of filters
– Low-pass filter: maximum frequency is set and all signals below
that value are allowed
– High-pass filter: minimum frequency is set and all signals above
that level are allowed
– Bandpass filter: sets a range called a passband and signals that fall
within the passband are allowed

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 5

 Filters

Figure 3-2 Low-pass filter

Figure 3-3 High-pass filter

Figure 3-4 Bandpass filter

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 6

 Filters
• Filters are also found in transmitters
– Used to eliminate some unwanted frequencies called harmonic
oscillations
• Result from the process of modulating the signal before
transmission
• Intermediate frequency (IF) signal
– Resulting output from the modulation process
• IF signal is filtered through a bandpass filter
– To remove any undesired high- or low-frequency signals

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 7

 Filters

Figure 3-5 Filter function in a radio transmitter

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 8

 Mixers
• Mixers: combine two radio frequency inputs to
create a single output
– Output is in the range of the highest sum and the lowest
difference of the two frequencies
– Sum and differences are known as the sidebands of the
frequency carrier
• Shield transmitted signal from “stray” signals
• Used to convert an input frequency to a specific
desired output frequency

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 9

 Infrared Light

Figure 3-6 Mixer symbol

Figure 3-7 Mixer output

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 10

 Mixers

Figure 3-8 AM radio sidebands

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 11

 Amplifiers
• Amplifiers: increase the amplitude of an RF signal
• RF signals tend to lose intensity (amplitude)
– When they move through circuits, air, or space
• Amplifier is an active device
– Must be supplied with electricity
– Uses this electricity to increase a signal’s intensity or strength
• Then output an exact copy of the input signal with a higher
amplitude

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 12

 Antennas
• Antennas: transmit or receive an RF signal
– Antennas will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4

Figure 3-11 Antenna symbol

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 13

 Antennas

Table 3-1 Radio system components and their symbols

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 14

 Design of a Radio System
• Designers of radio communications systems
– Need to consider how the systems will be used
– Other considerations:
• Multiple user access
• Transmission direction
• Switching
• Signal strength

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 15

 Multiple Access
• Only a limited number of frequencies are available
for radio transmission
– Conserving the use of frequencies is important
• Conserving a frequency
– Share a frequency among multiple users
• Methods that allow multiple access
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 16

 Multiple Access

Figure 3-12 Multiple access

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 17

 Multiple Access
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Divides the bandwidth of a channel into several smaller
frequencies bands
– Most often used with analog transmissions
– Cable television is transmitted using FDMA
– Drawback of FDMA: Crosstalk
• Causes interference on the other frequency and may disrupt
the transmission

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 18

 Multiple Access

Figure 3-13 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 19

 Multiple Access
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Divides the transmission time into several slots
– Each user is assigned the entire frequency for the
transmission
• For a fraction of time on a fixed, rotating basis
– Advantages
• Uses the bandwidth more efficiently
• Allows both data and voice transmissions to be mixed using
the same frequency

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 20

 Multiple Access

Figure 3-14 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 21
 Multiple Access
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
– Used primarily for cellular telephone communications
– Uses direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
• With a unique digital spreading code (PN code)
– Before transmission occurs
– High-rate PN code is combined with the data to be sent
– Spreads the signal over a wide frequency band
– The longer the code is, the more users will be able to share the same
channel
– Number of chips in the code
• Determines the amount of spreading or bandwidth

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 22

 Multiple Access

Figure 3-15 CDMA spreading of a data signal by a PN code

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 23

 Multiple Access
• Code Division Multiple Access (cont’d)
– Spreading process is reversed at the receiver
• Code is de-spread to extract the original data bit transmitted

Figure 3-16 De-spreading a CDMA signal to recover the data bits

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 24

 Multiple Access
• Code Division Multiple Access (cont’d)
– Advantages
• Can carry up to three times the amount of data as TDMA
• Transmissions are much harder to eavesdrop on
• A would-be eavesdropper must also know the exact chip in
which the transmission starts

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 25

 Transmission Direction
• Simplex transmission
– Occurs in only one direction
– Rarely used in wireless communication today
• Except for broadcast radio and television
• Half-duplex transmission
– Sends data in both directions
• But only one way at a time
– Used in consumer devices such as citizens band (CB) radios or
walkie-talkies
• User must hold down the “talk” button while speaking

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 26

 Transmission Direction

Figure 3-18 Simplex transmission

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 27

 Transmission Direction

Figure 3-19 Half-duplex transmission

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 28

 Transmission Direction
• Full-duplex transmission
– Allows data to flow in both directions simultaneously
– Example: A telephone system
– If the same antenna is used for wireless transmission and
reception
• A filter can be used to handle full-duplex transmissions
– Full-duplex wireless communications equipment
• Sends and receives on different frequencies

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 29

 Transmission Direction

Figure 3-20 Full-duplex transmission

Figure 3-21 Using a single antenna in full-duplex RF communications

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 30

 Switching
• Involves moving the signal from one wire or frequency to another
• Circuit switching
– Type of switching used by telephone systems
– A dedicated and direct physical connection is made between the caller
and the recipient
• Direct connection lasts until the end of the call
• Packet switching
– Used by data networks
– Data transmissions are broken into packets
– Each packet is sent independently

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 31

 Switching

Figure 3-22 Telephone call switching

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 32

 Switching Demonstrated, excerpt from the series “The
Crowns”

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 33

 Switching

Figure 3-23 Packet switching

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 34

 Switching
• Packet switching advantages
– Allows better utilization of the network
– Allows multiple computers to share the same line or
frequency
– If a transmission error occurs
• It usually affects only one or a few packets
• Only packets affected must be resent, not entire message

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 35

 Signal Strength
• Strength of the signal in a radio system
– Must be sufficient for the signal to reach its destination
• With enough amplitude to be picked up by the antenna
• And for the information to be extracted from it
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
– Affects radio signal strength
– Also called noise
• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
– Compares signal strength with background noise
– When strength of a signal is well above the noise, interference can be
filtered out

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 36

 Signal Strength

Figure 3-24 Sources of EMI or noise (interference)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 37

 Signal Strength

Figure 3-25 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 38

 Signal Strength
• To reduce the interference of noise
– Boost the strength of the signal
– Use of filters on the receiving end
• Attenuation
– A loss of signal strength
• Multipath distortion
– As a radio signal is transmitted, the electromagnetic waves spread
out
– Waves travel different paths between transmitter and receiver
• Arrive at different times and out of phase

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 39

 Signal Strength

Figure 3-26 Multipath interference or distortion

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 40

 Signal Strength

Figure 3-27 Effect of multipath distortion in a signal

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 41

 Signal Strength
• Directional antenna
– Used to minimize multipath distortion
– Radiates electromagnetic waves in one direction only
• Other methods to reduce multipath distortion
– Use an amplifier in front of receiver to increase SNR
– Transmit the same signal on separate frequencies

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 42

 Understanding Standards
• Standards for telecommunications have been in place
almost since the beginning of the industry
– Standards have played an important role in the rapid
growth of the industry

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 43

 The Need For Standards
• Standards
– Commonly accepted technical specifications
• Telecommunications requires standards exist for the
design, implementation, and operation of the equipment
• A lack of standards between devices would prevent
communications from taking place

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 44

 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Standards

• Advantages
– Guarantee device interoperability
– Create competition
• Competition results in lower costs for consumers and improvements in
products
• Competition also results in lower costs for manufacturers
– Help consumers protect their investment in equipment
• Disadvantages
– Can be a threat to industries in large countries
– Although standards are intended to create unity
• They can have the opposite effect

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 45

 Types of Standards
• De Facto Standards
– Not official standards
– Common practices that industry follows
• De jure Standards
– Also called official standards
– Controlled by an organization or body
– Process for creating standards can be very involved
• Consortia
– Industry-sponsored organizations that promote a specific
technology

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 46

 Telecommunications Standards
Organizations

• United States Standards Groups

– American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– Telecommunications Industries Association (TIA)
– Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
– Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
– Internet Society (ISOC)
– Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Multinational Standards Groups
– European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 47

 Telecommunications Standards
Organizations

• International Standards Groups

– International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
– International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 48

 Regulatory Agencies
• Enforcing telecommunications regulations is important for RF spectrum
management and open standards for multiple vendors.
• Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
– Primary regulatory agency for telecommunications in the United States
• National Communication Authority
– Primary regulatory agency for telecommunications in Ghana
– Responsibilities
• Develops and implements regulatory programmes
• Processes applications for licenses and other filings
• Analyzes complaints and conducts investigations
• Take part in congressional hearings
• Represents the United States in negotiations
• Regulates radio and television broadcast stations
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 49
 Radio Frequency Spectrum
• Radio frequency spectrum
– Range extends from 10 KHz to over 30 GHz
– Spectrum is divided into 450 different sections (bands)
• Radio frequencies of common devices include:
– Garage door openers, alarm systems: 40 MHz
– Baby monitors: 49 MHz
– Radio-controlled airplanes: 72 MHz
– Radio-controlled cars: 75 MHz
– Wildlife tracking collars: 215 MHz–220 MHz
– Global positioning system: 1.227 GHzSlideand
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD 50 1.575 GHz
 Radio Frequency Spectrum

Table 3-3 Radio frequency bands

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 51
 Radio Frequency Spectrum
• International spectrum allocations are established by
the ITU
• License exempt spectrum
– Unregulated bands
• Radio spectra available without charge to any users without
a license
– Devices from different vendors may attempt to use the
same frequency (disadvantage)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 52

 Radio Frequency Spectrum

Table 3-4 Unregulated bands

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 53

 Radio Frequency Spectrum
• Recent developments that have had an impact on
the crowded radio frequency spectrum
– Adaptive array processing
• Replaces a traditional antenna with an array of antenna
elements
– Ultra-wideband transmission (UWB)
• Uses low-power, precisely timed pulses of energy that
operate in the same frequency spectrum as low-end noise
• Currently used in limited radar and position-location devices

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 54

 Summary
• Radio frequency system hardware components
– Filters, mixers, amplifiers, and antennas
• Filter is used either to accept or block a radio frequency signal
• Mixer combines two inputs to create a single output
• Amplifier increases a signal’s intensity or strength
• Multiple access methods
– FDMA
– TDMA
– CDMA

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 55

 Summary
• Types of data flow
– Simplex
– Half-duplex
– Full-duplex
• Switching involves moving the signal from one wire
or frequency to another
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is sometimes
called noise
– Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
• Measure of signal strength relative to background noise

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 56

 Summary
• Standards for telecommunications
– In place almost since the beginning of the industry
• Radio frequency spectrum
– The entire range of all radio frequencies that exist
• Recent developments that have had an impact on
the crowded radio frequency spectrum
• Adaptive array processing
– Ultra-wideband transmission

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 57

 Review Questions
• List and describe the three types of data flow.
• List and discuss the advantages of standard.
• What is switching? What type of switching is used with telephone
transmissions, and what type is used for data transmission.
• Explain multipath distortion and how it can be minimized.
• What are the functions of NCA in Ghana?

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 58

 References
• All materials in this slide are the sole property of Cengage
Learning 2014

• Chapter 3: Olenewa J. L. (2014). Guide to Wireless Communications. (3rd ed.), Boston, MA

02210, USA: Course Technology
• Chapters 2 & 3: Hucaby D. (2016). CCNA Wireless 200-355 Official Cert Guide. (1st ed.)
Cisco Press .
• Ciampa M. (2002). Guide to Wireless Communications. (1st ed.), Thomson Course
Technology.

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 59