Geologic Structures
Physical Geology
Tim Horner
CSUS Geology Department
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Geologic Structures
• Geologic structures are dynamically-produced patterns
or arrangements of rock or sediment that result from,
and give information about, forces within the Earth
– Produced as rocks change shape and orientation in response
to applied stress
– Structural geology is the study of the shapes, arrangement, and
interrelationships of rock units and the forces that cause them
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Stress and Strain
• Stress is force per unit area
– The three basic types of stress are
compressive, tensional and shear
• Strain is a change in size or
shape in response to stress
– Geologic structures are indicative
of the type of stress and its rate of
application, as well the physical
properties of the rocks or sediments
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How Rocks Respond to Stress
• Rocks behave as elastic, ductile or brittle materials depending
on:
– amount and rate of stress application
– type of rock
– temperature and pressure
• If deformed materials return to original shape after stress
removal, they are behaving elastically
• However, once the stress exceeds the elastic limit of a rock, it
deforms permanently
– ductile deformation involves bending plastically
– brittle deformation involves fracturing
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Types of Geologic Structures
• Folds are wavelike bends in layered rock
– Represent rock strained in a ductile manner,
usually under compression
• The axial plane divides a fold into its
two limbs
– The surface trace of an axial plane is called
the hinge line (or axis) of the fold
• Anticlines are upward-arching folds, and
synclines are downward-arching folds
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Types of Folds
• Plunging folds are folds in which
the hinge line is not horizontal
– Where surfaces have been leveled by erosion,
plunging folds form V- or horseshoe-shaped
patterns of exposed rock layers (beds)
• Open folds have limbs that dip gently, whereas isoclinal folds
have parallel limbs
• Overturned folds have limbs that dip in the same directions, and
recumbent folds are overturned to the point of being horizontal
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Structural Domes and Basins
• Domes are structures in which
the beds dip away from a
central point
– Sometimes called doubly plunging
anticlines
• Basins are structures in which
the beds dip toward a central
point
– Sometimes called doubly plunging
synclines
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Fractures in Rock
• Joints - fractures bedrock along which no
movement has occurred
– Multiple parallel joints are called joint sets
• Faults - fractures in bedrock along which
movement has occurred
– Considered “active” if movement has occurred along them within
the last 11,000 years
– Categorized by type of movement as dip-slip, strike-slip, or
oblique-slip
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Types of Faults
• Dip-slip faults have movement
parallel to the dip of the fault plane
– In normal faults, the hanging-wall block
has moved down relative to the footwall
Insert revised Fig.
block 15.22 here
– In reverse faults, the hanging-wall block
has moved up relative to the footwall
block Insert revised Fig.
15.26a here
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Types of Faults
• Dip-slip faults have movement parallel to the
dip of the fault plane
– Fault blocks, bounded by normal faults, that drop
down or are uplifted are known as grabens and
horsts, respectively
• Grabens associated with divergent plate boundaries are
called rifts
– Thrust faults are reverse faults with dip angles less
than 30° from horizontal
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Types of Faults
• Strike-slip faults have movement that is predominantly
horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault plane
– A viewer looking across to the other side of a right-lateral
strike-slip fault would observe it to be offset to their right
– A viewer looking across to the other side of a left-lateral
strike-slip fault would observe it to be offset to their left
• Oblique-slip faults have movement with both vertical
and horizontal components
Right-lateral San Andreas Fault
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California Faults
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