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INTRODUCTION TO
MICROECONOMICS?
 Definition of Economics

All economic questions arise because we want more than

we can get.

Our inability to satisfy all our wants is called scarcity.

Because we face scarcity, we must make choices.

The choices we make depend on the incentives we face.

An incentive is a reward that encourages an action or a

penalty that discourages an action.

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 Definition of Economics

Economics is the social science that studies the choices

that individuals, businesses, governments, and entire
societies make as they cope with scarcity and the
incentives that influence and reconcile those choices.

Economics divides in to main parts:

 Microeconomics
 Macroeconomics

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 Definition of Economics

Microeconomics is the study of choices that individuals

and businesses make, the way those choices interact in
markets, and the influence of governments.

An example of a microeconomic question is: Why are

people buying more e-books and fewer hard copy books?

Macroeconomics is the study of the performance of the

national and global economies.

An example of a macroeconomic question is: Why is the

unemployment rate in the United States so high?

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 Two Big Economic Questions

Two big questions summarize the scope of economics:

 How do choices end up determining what, how, and for

whom goods and services get produced?

 When do choices made in the pursuit of self-interest

also promote the social interest?

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 Two Big Economic Questions
What, How, and For Whom?

Goods and services are the objects that people value

and produce to satisfy human wants.

What?

Agriculture accounts for less than 1 percent of total U.S.

production, manufactured goods for 22 percent, and
services for 77 percent.

In China, agriculture accounts for 11 percent of total

production, manufactured goods for 49 percent, and
services for 40 percent.
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 Two Big Economic Questions
Figure 1.1 shows these
numbers for the United
States and China.

It also shows the

numbers for Brazil.

What determines these

patterns of production?

How do choices end up

determining the quantity
of each item produced in
the United States and
around the world?
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 Two Big Economic Questions

How?

Goods and services are produced by using productive

resources that economists call factors of production.

Factors of production are grouped into four categories:

 Land
 Labor
 Capital
 Entrepreneurship
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 Two Big Economic Questions

For Whom?

Who gets the goods and services depends on the incomes

that people earn.

 Land earns rent.

 Labor earns wages.
 Capital earns interest.
 Entrepreneurship earns profit.

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 Two Big Economic Questions

Can the Pursuit of Self-Interest Promote the Social

Interest?

Every day, 311 million Americans and 6.9 billion people in

other countries make economic choices that result in
What, How, and For Whom goods and services are
produced.

Do we produce the right things in the right quantities?

Do we use our factors of production in the best way?

Do the goods and services go to those who benefit most

from them?
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 Two Big Economic Questions

Self-Interest

You make choices that are in your self-interest—choices

that you think are best for you.

Social Interest

Choices that are best for society as a whole are said to be

in the social interest.

Social interest has two dimensions:

Efficiency
Equity
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 Two Big Economic Questions

Efficiency is achieved when the available resources are

used to produce goods and services:

1.At the lowest possible price and

2.In quantities that give the greatest possible benefit.

Equity is fairness, but economists have a variety of views

about what is fair.

The Big Question

Can choices made in self-interest promote the social

interest?

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 The Economic Way of Thinking
Six key ideas define the economic way of thinking:

 A choice is a tradeoff.
 People make rational choices by comparing benefits
and costs.

 Benefit is what you gain from something.

 Cost is what you must give up to get something.
 Most choices are “how-much” choices made at the
margin.

 Choices respond to incentives.

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 The Economic Way of Thinking
A Choice Is a Tradeoff

The economic way of thinking places scarcity and its

implication, choice, at center stage.

You can think about every choice as a tradeoff—an

exchange—giving up one thing to get something else.

On Saturday night, will you study or have fun?

You can’t study or have fun at the same time, so you must
make a choice.

Whatever you choose, you could have chosen something

else. Your choice is a tradeoff.
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 The Economic Way of Thinking
Making a Rational Choice

A rational choice is one that compares costs and

benefits and achieves the greatest benefit over cost for the
person making the choice.

Only the wants of the person making a choice are relevant

to determine its rationality.

The idea of rational choice provides an answer to the first

question: What goods and services will be produced and
in what quantities?

The answer is: Those that people rationally choose to buy!

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 The Economic Way of Thinking
How do people choose rationally?
The answers turn on benefits and costs.

Benefit: What you Gain

The benefit of something is the gain or pleasure that it

brings and is determined by preferences

Preferences are what a person likes and dislikes and the

intensity of those feelings.

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 The Economic Way of Thinking
Cost: What you Must Give Up

The opportunity cost of something is the highest-valued

alternative that must be given up to get it.

What is your opportunity cost of going to an AC/DC

concert?

Opportunity cost has two components:

1. The things you can’t afford to buy if you purchase the

AC/DC ticket.

2. The things you can’t do with your time if you spend at

the concert.
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 The Economic Way of Thinking

How Much? Choosing at the Margin

You can allocate the next hour between studying and

instant messaging your friends.

The choice is not all or nothing, but you must decide how
many minutes to allocate to each activity.

To make this decision, you compare the benefit of a little bit

more study time with its cost—you make your choice at the
margin.

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 The Economic Way of Thinking

To make a choice at the margin, you evaluate the

consequences of making incremental changes in the use
of your time.

The benefit from pursuing an incremental increase in an

activity is its marginal benefit.

The opportunity cost of pursuing an incremental increase

in an activity is its marginal cost.

If the marginal benefit from an incremental increase in an

activity exceeds its marginal cost, your rational choice is to
do more of that activity.

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 The Economic Way of Thinking

Choices Respond to Incentives

A change in marginal cost or a change in marginal benefit

changes the incentives that we face and leads us to
change our choice.

The central idea of economics is that we can predict how

choices will change by looking at changes in incentives.

Incentives are also the key to reconciling self-interest and

the social interest.

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 Economics: A Social Science and
Policy Tool
Economist as Social Scientist

Economists distinguish between two types of statement:

 What is—positive statements

 What ought to be—normative statements
A positive statement can be tested by checking it against
facts.

A normative statement expresses an opinion and cannot

be tested.

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 Economics: A Social Science and
Policy Tool
Unscrambling Cause and Effect

The task of economic science is to discover positive

statements that are consistent with what we observe in the
world and that enable us to understand how the economic
world works.

Economists create and test economic models.

An economic model is a description of some aspect of

the economic world that includes only those features that
are needed for the purpose at hand.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

The production possibilities frontier (PPF) is the

boundary between those combinations of goods and
services that can be produced and those that cannot.

To illustrate the PPF, we focus on two goods at a time and

hold the quantities of all other goods and services
constant.

That is, we look at a model economy in which everything

remains the same (ceteris paribus) except the two goods
we’re considering.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Production Possibilities Frontier

Figure 2.1 shows the PPF for two goods: cola and pizzas.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Any point on the frontier such as E and any point inside the
PPF such as Z are attainable.

Points outside the PPF are unattainable.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Production Efficiency

We achieve production
efficiency if we cannot
produce more of one
good without producing
less of some other good.

Points on the frontier are

efficient.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Any point inside the

frontier, such as Z, is
inefficient.

At such a point, it is
possible to produce more
of one good without
producing less of the
other good.

At Z, resources are either

unemployed or
misallocated.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Tradeoff Along the PPF

Every choice along the

PPF involves a tradeoff.

On this PPF, we must

give up some cola to get
more pizzas or give up
some pizzas to get more
cola.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Opportunity Cost

As we move down along

the PPF,

we produce more pizzas,

but the quantity of cola we
can produce decreases.

The opportunity cost of a

pizza is the cola forgone.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

In moving from E to F:

The quantity of pizzas

increases by 1 million.

The quantity of cola

decreases by 5 million
cans.

The opportunity cost of the

fifth 1 million pizzas is
5 million cans of cola.

One of these pizzas costs 5

cans of cola.
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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

In moving from F to E:

The quantity of cola

increases by 5 million
cans.

The quantity of pizzas

decreases by 1 million.

The opportunity cost of

the first 5 million cans of
cola is 1 million pizzas.

One of these cans of cola

costs 1/5 of a pizza.
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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Opportunity Cost Is a
Ratio

Note that the opportunity

cost of a can of cola is the
inverse of the opportunity
cost of a pizza.

One pizza costs 5 cans of

cola.

One can of cola costs 1/5

of a pizza.

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 Production Possibilities and Opportunity Cost

Increasing Opportunity
Cost

Because resources are

not equally productive in
all activities, the PPF
bows outward.

The outward bow of the

PPF means that as the
quantity produced of each
good increases, so does
its opportunity cost.

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 Using Resources Efficiently

Figure 2.2 illustrates the

marginal cost of a pizza.

As we move along the

PPF, the opportunity cost
of a pizza increases.

The opportunity cost of

producing one more
pizza is the marginal cost
of a pizza.

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