CEN 377

Geotechnical Engineering II

Lecture 2
Subsurface Exploration
and Geotechnical Site
Investigation

Sarder Mohammad Yahya

Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, IUBAT
B.Sc. (IUT), M.Eng. (UTM, Malaysia), Ph.D. Contd. (Curtin, Australia- East Malaysia)
 Important Recap
Generally
• Soil - 4 types
1. Gravel Coarse
Granular Cohesionless
Grained
2. Sand Soil Soil
Soil
3. Silt Fine
Cohesive
4. Clay Grained
Soil
Soil
To some extent silt can be considered as granular
Coarse Grained vs Fine Grained Larger Particle vs Smaller Particle

Cohesive vs Cohesionless Sticky vs Non-sticky

Subsurface Exploration
The design of foundations of structures (such as buildings,
bridges, and dams) generally requires information about:

• Structure
• Ground

Structure

Ground
 What is Geotechnical Site Investigation (SI)
• Site investigation (SI) is the process of gathering information, within
practical limits, about the stratification (layers) and engineering
properties of the soils/rocks underlying the proposed construction site.

Structure

Site Investigation
Ground
Why site investigation (SI)?

Many engineering problems

(failures) could have been avoided
if a proper site investigation had
been carried out.

The site has a sinkhole

risk which might
have been discovered
in a proper site
investigation
 Why site investigation (SI)?
• The success or failure of a foundation depends essentially on the reliability
of the knowledge obtained from the site investigation.

Sophisticated theories alone will not give a safe and sound design.
 Purpose of SI
The knowledge about the ground of the proposed construction site
is obtained by Site Investigation, and used to determine:

Suitability: of site
for the proposed Design parameters:
Effect such as strength,
changes: construction?
of How will compressibility,
the design affect permeability & other
adjacent properties parameters used for

Investigation
and the ground geotechnical design
water?

Type of design Geo-materials:

solution: e.g. type available on site

Site
of foundation: which can be
shallow or deep. re- used?

Ground or Ground-water conditions: that would

affect the design and construction? e.g. expansive soil,
collapsible soil, high ground water…
Objectives of site investigation

Investigation
Manage the
geotechnical

Site
risk

9
Program of site investigation

Before Site Investigation

The sequence of Site
Investigation

10
 Before Site Investigation
• Site Investigation is usually carried out as part of Subsurface
Exploratory program.

• Before conducting the Site Investigation, the program usually

include: Desk Study and Site Reconnaissance.

Site Reconnaissance[Stage
2]
Visual inspection of the site.

Desk Study [Stage 1]

Collect and review preliminary
information about the site,
and the structure to be built.
 Desk Study [Stage 1]
Collecting general information about the structure,
from
the architectural and structural design:
Information about the Structure
– Type, dimensions, and use of the
structure, and any special
architectural considerations. Structure
– the load that will be transmitted by
the
superstructure to the foundation Ground
system
– the requirements of the local building
code (e.g. allowable settlement)
 Desk Study [Stage 1]
Collecting general information about the ground, from
already existing data such as: geological maps, seismic
maps, OS maps, Ariel Photography, Services records
(Gas, Water, Electricity), Previous geo-environmental or
geotechnical reports, … etc. at or near site.
Information about the ground:
– the geological conditions of the ground
(e.g. layers, Geological features, Structure
Ground water, Flood & Earthquake risk
in the area, ..).
– the historical use of the site – if Ground
previously used as quarry, agricultural
land, industrial unit with
contamination issue, man-made
fill/slope, etc.
 Site Reconnaissance [Stage 2]
The Site Reconnaissance is normally in the form of a walk-over survey
of the site.

What
things do I
need to
look for?

Engineer during Site

Visit
 Site Reconnaissance [Stage 2]
Important evidence to look for is:

1. Stratification of soil: from deep cut, such as those made for

the construction of nearby highway or other projects – if any.
2. Slope: signs of slope instability include bent trees, shrinkage cracks on
the ground and displaced fences or drains.

Stratification of Signs of slope

 Site Reconnaissance [Stage 2]
Important evidence to look for is:

3. Structures: type of buildings in the area and the existence of any

cracks in walls or other problems. You may need to ask local people.

Indication of
Tipping settlement Differential possible ground-
(often without settlement (with related problem
cracks) cracks)
 Site Reconnaissance [Stage 2]
Other important evidence to look for is:

4. Mining: The presence of previous mining is often signs of subsidence

and possibly disused mine shafts. Open cast mining is indicated by
diverted streams replaced or removed fence/hedge lines.
5. Hydrogeology: Wet marshy ground, springs or seepage, ponds or
streams and Wells.
6. Topography: possible existence of drainage ditches or abandoned
debris or other man-made features.
7. Vegetation: may indicate the type of soil.
8. Access: It is essential that access to the site can be easily
obtained. Possible problems include low overhead cables and
watercourses.
The sequence of Site Investigation

• Soil exploration is a requirement for

the design of foundations of any
project. Stage 3
Planning
• In large construction projects, 2
–site investigations
Preliminary (SI) are carried
SI, followed
out: Stage 4

Sequence of Site
by Implementation
– Detailed SI.

Investigation
• Whether investigation is preliminary or
detailed, there are three important
phases: planning, implementation and Reporting
reporting. Stage 5
Planning (A preliminary site investigation)
[Stage 3]
Stage 3
Planning regarding Planning
Depth of
investigation Stage 4

Sequence of Site
Implementation
Spacing of boreholes

Reporting

Stage 5
 Why
planning?
• How many borings do we need?
• How deep the borings should be?

The more the better, but what about the cost?

Borehole
 Planning

 Why
planning?
Planning for site investigation is required to:
• Minimize cost of explorations and yet give
reliable data.
• Decide on quantity and quality depending on
type, size and importance of project and whether
investigation is preliminary or detailed.

• Decide on minimum Borehole Spacing

depth and spacing of
exploration.
Borehole
Depth of
Implementation (A detailed site investigation)
[Stage 4]

 Overview Stage 3
Planning
 Boring
Stage 4

Sequence of Site
 Sampling Implementation

 Testing
Reporting

Stage 5
Implementation

Overview
The implementation phase of site investigation
usually
includes three important aspects:

1 Boring 2 Sampling 3
Testing
Soil
Trial In-situ tests
Sampling
pits

Rock Laboratory
Boreholes
Sampling tests
Implementation  Boring

Trial pits
• Trial pits are shallow excavations -
less
than 6m deep. Pick and
shovel Backhoe
• The trial pit is used extensively at the
surface for block sampling and
detection of services prior to
borehole excavation.
• For safety ALL pits below a depth of Trial Pit
1.2mDepth
must be supported.
Excavation Method 6m >
0-2m By Hand depth
2-4m Wheeled Back Hoe
4-6m Hydraulic Excavator

30
Boring
1. Auger Boring
2. Wash Boring
3. Rotary Drilling
4. Percussion Drilling

• The right choice of

method
depends on: Borehole
– Ground condition: presence
of hard clay, gravel, rock.
– Ground-water condition:
presence of high ground-
water table (GWT).
– Depth of investigation
– Site access
1
 Boreholes

1. Auger Boring
• This is the simplest of the methods. Hand
operated or power driven augers may be Power-driven
augers
used.
• Suitable in all soils above GWT but only
in cohesive soil below GWT.
Hand operated
augers

Posthole auger Helical auger 2

 2. Wash Boring
• A casing is driven with a drop hammer. A
hollow drill rod with chopping bit is
inserted inside the casing.
• Soil is loosened and removed from the
borehole using water or a drilling mud
jetted under pressure.
• Wash boring is a very convenient
method for soil exploration below the
ground water table provided the soil is
either sand, silt or clay. The method is
not suitable if the soil is mixed with
gravel or boulders.
3. Rotary Drilling
• In this method a rapidly retaining
drilling bit (attached to a drilling rod)
cut the soil and advance the borehole.

• Water or drilling mud is forced down

the drilling rods to the bits, and the
return flow forces the cuttings to the
surface.

• The drilling mud is a slurry of water and

bentonite. Generally, it is used when
the soil that is encountered is likely to
cave in.

• When soil sample is needed the drilling

rod is raised and the drilling bit is
replaced by a sampler.

• This method is suitable for soil

and rock.
Why Bentonite Slurry is used in Boring/Drilling/Piling?

Bentonite Clay Powder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BYAGtN0XGgg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=n5cxcr6MF1A&t=489s
 Boreholes

4. Percussion Drilling
• In this method a heavy drilling bit is
alternatively raised and dropped in
such a manner that it powders the
underlying materials which form a
slurry with water and are removed
as the boring advances.

• Possibly this is the only method for

drilling in river deposits mixed with
hard boulders of the quartzitic
type.
Wash Boring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PpbBnstrgs

Auger Boring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZ9Geq0s0hQ

Rotary Drilling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q5RXXvRXjlY

Percussion Drilling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3rrpJvyntM

Why
 Soil
sampling
Disturbed vs Undisturbed
• Two types of soil samples can be obtained during sampling:
disturbed and undisturbed.
• The most important engineering
properties required for
foundation design are strength,
compressibility, and permeability.
These tests require undisturbed
samples.
• Disturbed samples can be used
for determining other properties
such as Moisture content,
Classification & Grain size
analysis, Specific Gravity, and
Plasticity Limits.
 Soil sampling
Disturbed vs Undisturbed
• It is nearly impossible to obtain a truly undisturbed sample of
soil.
• The quality of an "undisturbed" sample varies widely between
soil laboratories. So how is disturbance evaluated?

• Quality of samples is evaluated by calculating

Area Ratio AR:

soil

The thicker the wall of the sampling tube, the

greater the disturbance.
Very Good quality undisturbed samples AR<10% . Sampling tube
Practically if AR <15% - we can say undisturbed. If > 15%, disturbed
 Soil
sampling
Split Spoon Sampler Used in SPT Test

• Samples collected in Split-spoon Sampler is usually

classified as “disturbed”.
What is the Area Ratio?
= 34.93 mm
= 50.8 mm
Area Ratio,

= 111.51%
Thin-Walled “Shelby Tube” Sampler
Soil
sampling
Thin-Walled “Shelby Tube” Sampler. What type of Soil it can collect?
Disturbed or Undisturbed?

What is the Area Ratio?

= 47.63 mm
= 50.8 mm
Area Ratio,

= 13.75%

Answer: “undisturbed”
Rock Sampling
(Coring)

Rock samples are called “rock cores”, and

they are necessary if the soundness of
the rock is to be established.

• Core drilling equipment?

• Core recovery parameters?
 Rock Sampling
(Coring)
Core drilling equipment Drill rod

• Coring is done with either

tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits. (Moh’s
Inner
Scale =?) barrel
Core
• Rock sampler is called barrel Outer
“core barrel” which usually barrel

Rock

Rock

Rock

Rock
has a single tube.
• Double or triple tube core Rock
barrel is used when core
sampling of weathered or Coring
fractured rock. bit

Diamond Drill Bit

(a) (b)
Core barrel: (a) Single-tube; (b) double-
 Rock Sampling
(Coring)
Core drilling equipment
• Cores tend to break up inside the drill
barrel, especially if the rock is soft or
fissured.
• Core recovery parameters are used to
describe
the quality of core.
• Length of pieces of core are used to
determine:
– Core Recovery Ratio (Rr)
– Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

Rock cores
 Rock Sampling (Coring)
Core drilling equipment

• Assuming the following pieces for a given core

run:

Core recovery (lengths of intact pieces of Recovery Ratio,

Rr core) Rr
(Core run)

Rock Quality Designation,

RQD
10 
= L 100% ( L i ≥ 10
(Core run) i
L cm )
 Rock Sampling
(Coring)
Core recovery parameters
• So Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is the percentage of rock cores that
have length ≥ 10 cm over the total drill length (core run).
• RQD may indicate the degree of
jointing or fracture in a rock mass.
e.g. High-quality rock has an RQD of
more than 75%.
• RQD is used in rock mass classification
systems and usually used in
estimating support of rock tunnels.
Rock Sampling
(Coring)
Core recovery parameters

Class Example
Work out Rr and RQD for the
following core recovery (intact
pieces), assuming the core run
(advance) is 150 cm.

What is the rock mass quality

based on RQD?
 Rock Sampling
Core recovery parameters
(Coring)
Solution:

Given, Core Run Length, Lcr = 150 cm

• Total core recovery  L = 125 cm

• Core recovery ratio:
Rr = ( L/Lcr ) × 100%
= (125/150) × 100% ?
= 83%
• On modified basis (for pieces ≥ 10cm),
 L i = 95 cm
 Li
RQD = × 100%
Lcr
= (95/150) × 100%
= 63 %
 L i =?
• RQD = 50% - 75%  Rock mass quality  L= ?
is “Fair”
Implementation

Testing

1 2
3
Boring Sampling
Testing

Trial pits Soil

Sampling
In-situ

Rock
Boreholes
Sampling tests

Laboratory
tests 20
In-situ
testsperformed on site/field
Test
• Introduction • Plate Load Test (PLT)
• Groundwater measurements • Pressure-meter Test (PMT)
• Standard Penetration Test • Flat Dilatometer Test
(SPT) (DMT)
• Cone Penetration Test (CPT) • Vane shear test (VST)
• Elastometer Test (Rock)

PL
T
Piezometer

In Borehole
Introduction

Definition:
• In-situ tests are carried out in the field with intrusive testing
equipment.
• If non-intrusive method is required, then it is better to use
geophysical methods which use geophysical waves – i.e. without
excavating the ground.
Advantage of in-situ testing (against lab testing)
• It avoids the problems of sample recovery and disturbance
• some in-situ tests are easier to conduct than lab tests
• In-situ tests can offer more detailed site coverage than lab testing.
Testing standards
• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• British Standard (BS)
 Groundwater
measurements
Why Groundwater:
Standpipe
• Groundwater conditions are fundamental
factors in almost all geotechnical analyses Ground
and design studies. water level

Types of Groundwater measurements:

• Determination of groundwater levels (GWT)
and pressures. Borehole instrumented with
Piezometer is used for this purpose.
• Measurement of the permeability of the
subsurface materials, particularly if seepage
analysis is required. The test called
Pumping test.
Piezometer
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• One of the most common in
situ tests is the standard
penetration test, or SPT.

• This test was originally

developed in the late 1920s
and has been used most
extensively in North and
South America, the United
Kingdom, and Asia.

• Because of this long record

of experience, the test is
well established in
engineering practice.
Split Spoon Sampler
 SPT Test Refusal
• The test will be stopped and the boring log (also in
the soil test report) will show Refusal if
 SPT Test YouTube Video Link
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWDOqQjsyQ
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRoBXfrA9sw
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cUOBSF8bMg&t=150s
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAdCh6Hv6EM
• Several factors contribute to the variation of the standard
penetration number N at a given depth for similar soil profiles.

• Among these factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, borehole

diameter, sampling method, and rod length.

• The SPT hammer energy efficiency can be expressed as

• In the field, the magnitude of Er can vary from 30% to 90%. The
standard practice now in the U.S.A. and other countries is to
express the N-value to an average energy ratio of 60% (≈ N60 ).
Overburden Correction
Math Problem
From CEN 341 We know that,
Approach for finding out effective stress
• σ0 ′ = 𝛾′H
where,
𝛾′ = 𝛾dry if there is no water table
𝛾′ = (𝛾sat − 𝛾w) if there is water table
𝛾w = 9.81 kN/m3
σ0 ′ = 𝛾′H
where,
𝛾′ = 𝛾dry if there is no water table
𝛾′ = (𝛾sat − 𝛾w) if there is water table
𝛾w = 9.81 kN/m3
In-class Exercise
 Dilatancy Correction
• In saturated fine sand and silt if (N1) 60 > 15, Dilatancy
correction is needed. If less than 15, no correction required.

Why?

• Saturated fine sand and silt below ground water table

(G.W.T ) develops Pore Water Pressure (P.W.P) which is not
easily dissipated. P.W.P increases the soil resistance, and
thus (N1) 60 value becomes higher

(N2) 60 = 15 + 0.5 [(N1) 60 – 15]

 In-Class Exercise: SPT (All Concepts in One Problem)
The number of blows/drops observed in a Standard Penetration Test (SPT) for different
soil penetration interval at the depth of 9.5 m are as follows
Soil Penetration Interval (mm) No. of blows/drops
0 -150 (150) 8
150-300 (150) 10
300-450 (150) 14

The soil layer consists of saturated fine sand having 𝛾sat = 19.5 kN/m3
Formula
Following Sampling Method was adopted
Hammer Type = U.S.A Safety
Boring Dia = 150 mm
Sampler with Loose Sand Liner
Standard Rod length of 2 m

(N2) 60 = 15 + 0.5 [(N1) 60 – 15]

Questions
(a) Calculate the SPT (i) field N-value, (ii) corrected N60 value, and (iii) corrected (N1)60 value for
overburden pressure.
(b) Is dilatancy correction required? Why/Why not? If required, Determine (N 2)60 value for dilatancy
Solution (a) ηH = 60 ηB = 1.05 ηs = 0.9ηR = 0.75
(i) Field N-value = Summation of last two 150 mm penetration interval = 10 +14 = 24
(ii) Corrected N60 value = (24 × 60 × 1.05 × 0.9 ×0.75)/60 = 17.01 ≈ 17
(iii) 𝛔′o = 9.5 m × (19.5 – 9.81) kN/m3 = 92.055 kN/m2
CN = [1/(92.055/100)] 0.5 = 1.04
Corrected (N1)60 value for overburden pressure = CNN60 = 1.04 × 17 = 17.68 ≈ 18
Solution (b)
Yes, Dilatancy correction is required. Because, soil layer is saturated fine sand and its
(N1)60 value > 15
 SPT Correlations
• Pg 101
 Advantages & Limitations of SPT
• Future Assignment
 Determining the number of boring

• There is no hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of borings

are to be advanced. For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner
and one at the center should provide a start.

• Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the condition of the

subsoil.

• If various soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, fewer
boreholes are needed than in nonhomogeneous soil strata.
In practice: The number of boreholes and
the depth of each borehole will be identified
according to the type of project and the
subsoil on site, the following is example for
a 5 story residential building with
dimensions of (40 x 70) m:

The required number of boreholes = 5

boreholes (one at each corner and
one at the center) as mentioned previously.

The depth of each borehole for this project

is (8-10) m up to a depth of
water table.
Determining the Approx. Minimum Depth of Boring
Determining the Approx. Minimum Depth of Boring
• Determining the value of vertical effective stress (σ0 ′):
The value of (σ0 ′) always calculated from the ground
surface to the required depth

• Determining the increase in vertical effective stress(∆σ′):

The value of (∆σ′) always calculated from the lower face of
the foundation as discussed previously in CEN 341 soil
mechanics course
• An alternative approximate method can be used, and this method is easier and
faster than other methods. This method called (2:1 Method). The value of (∆σ′) can
be determined using (2:1 method) as following:
Determining minimum depth of borehole - Class-work 1
Given that,
q = 200 kN/m2
Structure Area, A = 70 m × 100 m
= 7000 m2
Applied load on the foundation, P = Stress × Area
= 200 kN/m2 × 7000 m2
= 1.4 × 106 kN
𝛾sat = 18 kN/m2
Depth of the foundation, Df = 0
Why Df = 0? Look the figure. Structure exists on the ground surface. And, there is no portion of
the structure below ground surface.

Distance from the lower face of the foundation (structure in

this math), D3 = 130 m – Df = 130 m – 0 = 130 m
Step 1 - Calculating the depth (D1) at which ∆𝛔′D1 = (1/10) × q
(1/10) × q = (1/10) × 200 kN/m2 = 20 kN/m2 …(Eqn 1)
The following figure showing the distribution of stress under the structure at
depth (D1)

The increase in vertical stress (∆σ′) at depth (D1) is calculated as follows:

∆𝛔′D1 = (1/10) ×q
[From Eqn 1 & Eqn 2]
⇒
…(Eqn 2)
⇒ D1 = 180 m
Step 2 -

The effective stress(σ′0 ) at depth D2 is calculated as following:

= (18 – 10)D2
⇒ 𝛔′o,D2 = 8D2 …(Eqn 3)

The increase in vertical stress (∆σ′) at depth (D2) is calculated as follows:

…(Eqn 4)

= 0.05
⇒ ∆𝛔′o,D2 = 0.05 × 𝛔′o,D2
⇒
[From Eqn 3 & Eqn 4]

⇒ D2 = 101.4 m
Step 3 – Determine D by choosing the smaller of 3 depths from D1, D2, D3
D1 = 180 m
D2 = 101.4 m
D3 = 130 m

So, D = 101.4 m

Minimum Depth of the Boring Dboring = Df + D

⇒ Dboring = 0 + 101.4 m
⇒ Dboring = 101.4 m (Ans.)
If the foundation is circular,
increase in vertical effective stress, ∆𝛔′D formula will be:
Determining minimum depth of borehole - Class-work 2
 Class-work
Given that,
P = 2500 kN
Structure Area, A = 3 m × 2 m
=6 m2
Stress on the foundation, q = P/A
= 2500 kN /6 m2
= 416.67 kN/m2
Depth of the foundation, Df = 1.5 m
Distance from the lower face of the foundation (say, structure
in this problem case), D3 = 100 m – Df = 100 m – 1.5 m
= 98.5 m
Step 1 - Calculating the depth (D1) at which ∆𝛔′D1 = (1/10) × q
(1/10) × q = (1/10) × 416.67 = 41.67 kN/m2…(Eqn 1)
The following figure showing the distribution of stress under the structure at
depth (D1)

The increase in vertical stress (∆σ′) at depth (D1) is calculated as follows:

∆𝛔′D1 = (1/10) ×q
[From Eqn 1 & Eqn 2]
…(Eqn 2) ⇒
⇒ D1 = 5.26 m
* Explanation [No need to write this during solving math, this is just for understanding] - Here,
D1 & D2 will certainly be greater than 3.5 m sand layer (2 m dry sand + 1.5 m saturated sand)
Why? Because this is the 1st layer. Another 2nd layer (clay layer) is also present here. So, we
need the borehole to go beyond the 1st sand layer. Let’s assume, the distance beyond 1st layer
is X (shown in Figure). Also Ground Water Table (GWT) is present. We want to select such
borehole depth so it can capture different soil profiles.
1. D1 can be easily calculated from Step 1
2. In Step 2, D2 is unknown at beginning.
So, We have to assume it at first. We
Df assume it as D2 = 3.5 + X (Look at Figure)

3.5
D2 3.5 + X

X
Step 2 -

The effective stress(σ′0 ) at depth D2 is calculated as following:

⇒ 𝛔′o,D2 = 72.25 + 6.9X

⇒ 𝛔′o,D2 = 72.25 + 6.9(D2 – 3.5) [If D2 = 3.5 + X, then X = D2 – 3.5]
⇒ 𝛔′o,D2 = 48.1 + 6.9D2 …(Eqn 3)
The increase in vertical stress (∆σ′) at depth (D2) is calculated as follows:
…(Eqn 4)

= 0.05
⇒ ∆𝛔′o,D2 = 0.05 × 𝛔′o,D2
⇒
[From Eqn 3 & Eqn 4]

⇒ D2 = 15.47 m
Step 3 – Determine D by choosing the smaller of 3 depths from D1, D2, D3
D1 = 5.26 m
D2 = 15.47 m
D3 = 98.5 m
So, D = 5.26 m

Minimum Depth of the Boring Dboring = Df + D

⇒ Dboring = 1.5 m + 5.26 m
⇒ Dboring = 6.76 m (Ans.)
Other Empirical Formula/Thumb Rules for Boring
Depth
2 Important Soil Shear Strength Parameters
• Cohesion, c (dominant property in clay)
• Angle of Internal Friction, ϕ (dominant property in
sand)

Determined from Lab Tests-

• Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Shear Test
Theoretically,
• Pure clay has high c value (known as c-soil), but ϕ =
0
• Pure sand has high ϕ value (known as ϕ -soil), but c
=0

• Practically, many soils are consists of mixture. So,

they will both have some c and ϕ value.
These are called c- ϕ soil
 29.47°
29.17°
30.62°
31.19°
30. 91°

Average ϕ’ = 30.27 °
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Class example

The following are the recorded numbers of SPT blows required for
spoon
penetration of three
Depth from ground 152.4cm
surface (m) (6 in)
1.5in a sand 3deposit: 4.5 6 7.5
SPT blows (blow/ 6 in) 3, 4, 5 7, 9, 10 7, 12, 11 8, 13, 14 10, 14, 15
Note. Assume the above SPT blows are corrected for energy and
equipment.

The ground water table (GWT) is located at a depth of 4.5m. The wet unit
weight of sand above GWT is 18 kN/m3, and the saturated unit weight of sand
below GWT is 19.81 kN/m3.

• Draw a sketch of the foundation showing the given details of the soil , given
that the depth is 2 m.
• Determine the standard penetration number (SPT-N) at each depth.
• What is the corrected (SPT-N) value? (Use Seed 1975 Equation)
 Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Solution  ’
Z, m SPT blow N60 (kN/m2) CN  ’

2 27 1.71 15 29.76°
1.5 3, 4, 5 4+5=9
3 7, 9, 10
 =18 kN/m3
4.5 7, 12, 11

sat=19.8 kN/m3 6 8, 13, 14 59.94

7.5 10, 14, 15

Z Only the last 2 sets of blows

count

Corrected
 Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Solution  ’
Z, m SPT blow N60 (kN/m2) CN  ’

2 27 1.71 15 29.76°
1.5 3, 4, 5 4+5=9
3 7, 9, 10 9+10=19 54 1.33 25 32.61
 =18 kN/m3 °
4.5 7, 12, 11 12+11=23 81 1.11 26 33.71
°
sat=19.8 kN/m3 6 8, 13, 14 13+14=27 59.94 1.28 35 34.81
°
7.5 10, 14, 15 14+15=29 74.93 1.16 34 35.34
°

Z Only the last 2 sets of blows

count

Corrected
Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Correlation between N and Relative Density Dr

Very
loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
 Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Correlation between Modulus of Elasticity and Standard Penetration
Number

• The modulus of elasticity of granular soils (Es) is important parameter

in estimation the elastic settlement of foundation.
• An approximate estimation for Es was given by Kulhawy and
Mayne (1990) as:
 Advantages
SPT does have at least 3 important advantages over other in situ test
methods:

• First, it obtains a sample of the soil being tested. While SPT samples
are highly disturbed, they do permit direct
soil classification. Most of the other methods do not include sample
recovery, so soil classification must be based on conventional
sampling.

• Second, it is very fast and inexpensive because

it is performed in borings that would have been drilled anyway.

• Finally, nearly all drill rigs used for soil exploration are equipped to
perform this test, whereas other in situ tests require specialized
 SPT Limitations
• Unfortunately, the procedure used in the field varies –
• Partially due to changes in the standard, but primarily
as a result of variations in the test procedure and poor
workmanship.

• The test results are sensitive to these variations, so the

N value is not as repeatable as we would like.

• Fortunately, automatic hammers are becoming more

popular. They are much more consistent than hand-
operated hammers, and thus improve the reliability of
the test.
 Use of SPT Data
• The SPT N value, as well as many other test results, is only an index of
soil behavior. It does not directly measure any of the conventional
engineering properties of soil and is useful only when appropriate
correlations are available.

• Many such correlations exist, all of which were obtained empirically.

Unfortunately, most of these correlations are very approximate,
especially those based on fairly old data that were obtained when test
procedures and equipment were different from those now used.

• In addition, because of the many uncertainties in the SPT results, all of

these correlations have a wide margin of error.

• Be especially cautious when using correlations between SPT results and

engineering properties of clays because these functions are especially
crude. In general, the SPT should be used only in cohesionless soils.
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Definition
• called also "Dutch cone test“ or
“Static Penetration test”.
• The test method consists of pushing an Hydraulic push at
instrumented cone, with the tip facing rate 20 mm/s
down, into the ground at a slow controlled
rate. Cone Rod
(36 mm dia.)
• Cone: 60 degree apex cone, Dia = 36 mm.
Measures
• Cone or Tip
fs
resistance (qc) or (qt) Friction Ratio, Fr
• Sleeve friction (fs) = qc
• Water Pore pressure (ub) Cone fs
• Other variables e.g. Shear wave velocity
(vs) qc or qt
1
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Applications:
• Soil profile (stratigraphy):
soil type identification

Clay
• Estimation of geotechnical
parameters (strength,

Clay & Silt

compressibility,
permeability)
• Evaluation of groundwater
• conditions (pore pressure)
Geo-environmental: Clay & Sand
distribution and
Silty Clay

composition of
contaminants

Sample data 2
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

Soil Identification:
• Point resistance qc
– High in granular soil
– Low in cohesive soil
• Friction Ratio Fr
– Low in granular soil
• However,
– High inthe cone/tip
cohesive soil(qc)
and sleeve (fs) resistance
increase with increasing
overburden stress  0
• for accurate identification,
normalization of qc & fs by
overburden stress is Classification Chart (Robertson et al., 1983)
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Advantages:
• Borehole is not necessary
• Almost continuous data (reading every
10mm)
• Elimination of operator error (automated)
• Reliable, repeatable test results

Disadvantages:
• Inability to penetrate through gravels and
cobbles
• Newer technology = less populated
database than SPT
• Lack of sampling
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Correlation with shear strength

• In Sand: the drained friction angle (Ricceri et al., 2002)

• In Clay: undrained shear strength

cu

where:
qc = the cone (tip) (point) resistance
 ’ 0 &  0 = effective and total overburden pressure,
respectively
NK = Bearing factor depends on type of cone (varies from 11-
20) OCR = Over Consolidation Ratio
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Class example: Correlation with shear
strength

Use equation proposed by Robertson (1983) 6

 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT) 1 MN/m2 = 1000 kN/m2

Solution:
Depth, m qc (MPa) ’ (kN/m2) qc /’ ’ (Rad) ’ (deg)
1.5 2.06 1.5 x 16 =24 (2.06 x 1000)/24 0.696 0.696x180/
= 85.8 =39.88o
3 4.23 48 88.13
4.5 6.01

6 8.18
7.5 9.97
9.0 12.42

’av =

 ’av =
Note. tan -1 is inverse tangent, the angle returned is in   ’/6 7
 Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Solution:
Depth, m qc (MPa) ’ (kN/m2) qc /’ ’ (Rad) ’ (deg)
1.5 2.06 1.5 x 16 =24 2060 / 24 = 85.8 0.696 0.696x180/
=39.88o
3 4.23 48 88.13 0.698 40o
4.5 6.01 72 83.47 0.693 39.71o

6 8.18 96 85.20 0.695 39.82o

7.5 9.97 120 83.08 0.692 39.64o

9.0 12.42 144 86.25 0.696 39.88o

’av =38.82o

 ’av =
Note. tan -1 is inverse tangent, the angle returned is in   ’/6 7
 CPT Types

• Nearly all CPTs in use today are electronic cones and include built-
in strain gages and measures at very small intervals, practically
giving a continuous data with depth. The CPT defines the soil
profile with much greater resolution than does the SPT.

• Piezocones equipped with pore pressure transducers can measure

the excess pore water pressures that develop while conducting
the test. These are known as, CPT with pore pressure
measurements or CPTu. These devices are especially useful in
saturated clays.

• Another enhancement to the CPT is to add geophones to the

penetrometer to allow the measurement of shear wave velocities
in a seismic CPT or SCPT. At present, it is possible to perform a
seismic CPT with pore pressure measurements or SCPTu.
 CPT Advantages

• The CPT is an especially useful way to evaluate soil profiles.

Since it retrieves data continuously with depth (with electronic
cones), the CPT is able to detect fine changes in the
stratigraphy. Therefore, engineers often use the CPT in the first
phase of subsurface investigation, saving boring and sampling
for the second phase.
• The CPT is much less prone to error due to differences in
equipment and technique, and thus is more repeatable and
reliable than the SPT. For some projects, it may be sufficient to
use only the CPT.
• The CPT also can be used to assess the engineering properties
of the soil through the use of empirical correlations.
• Correlations are also available to directly relate CPT results
with foundation behavior. These are especially useful in the
design of deep foundations
 Soil Stratigraphy

Changes in
Soil layers
 CPT Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98Q9Huc
9Us0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdKv4pZa
dX8&t=109s
 Suitability of Tests
• Although SPT can be used for both sand and
clays, SPT is more suitable for sand.

• CPT gives good results for both sand and clay.

CPTu is specially suitable for clay.
• 1st Term Exam – 04 June 2022
• Inside class
• Until this Slide
 Plate Load Test
(PLT)
• Plate load test is a field
test to determine the
ultimate bearing
capacity of soil.
• The test essentially
consists in loading a rigid
steel plate at the
foundation level and
determining the
settlement
corresponding to each
load increments.

• The ultimate bearing

capacity is then taken as the
load at which the plate starts
8
Image taken by Prosoil Foundation Consultant Bangladesh
Retrieved from https://prosoil.jimdo.com/geotechnical-1/in-situ-testing/
 Plate Load Test
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=9dzKfONcs-0&ab_channel=Morpheus%2FQ
 Laboratory
tests

CEN 377-Geotechnical Engineering II-Site Investigation 9

Laboratory tests

• Basic physical properties tests

(Moisture content, Specific gravity, Soil
Indexes, ..)
• Particle size test (sieving,
Sedimentation)
• Direct shear box test
• Unconfined compression test
• Triaxial test
• Consolidation test
• Permeability test
• Other lab tests: Chemical test
(pH, contamination,..)
10
 Planning

Reporting
Preparation of Borehole
Site Investigation
Report
 Preparation of Boring
Logs

Initial information: Name and

address of the drilling
company, Driller’s name, Job
description and reference
number, boring information
(number, type, and location
of, and date of boring).

Example of a typical boring

log
 Preparation of Boring
Logs

Subsurface stratification:
which can be obtained by
visual observation of the soil
brought out by auger, split-
spoon sampler, and thin-walled
Shelby tube sampler.

Groundwater: Elevation of
water table and date
observed, use of casing and
mud losses, and so on
 Preparation of Boring
Logs

In-situ tests: Standard

penetration
resistance and the
depth of SPT

Samples: Number, type, and

depth of soil sample collected;
in case of rock coring, type of
core barrel used and, for each
run, the actual length of
coring, length of core recovery,
and RQD.
 Preparation of Boring
Logs
Class example

The following borehole is part of a site investigation (SI) carried out over
a proposed location.
Assess the subsoil conditions and ground-water conditions based on
the borehole data. In particular write about:
• Soil layers: types, description, depth…
• Soil properties: shear strength properties -based on SPT.
• Ground water depth
 Site Investigation
Report

• When: After the completion of all

of the field and laboratory work, a
site investigation report is
prepared.
• Why: for the use of the design
office and for reference during
future construction work.
• The report is also called soil
exploration report or
Geotechnical Factual report.

What should be included in the

site investigation report?
  Site Investigation
Report
The report should contain descriptions of the followings:
• Purpose & Scope of the investigation
• Site & Structure: site location, existing structures, drainage conditions,
vegetation,… and information about the structure.
• Factual Details of field exploration: boreholes, samples, and
testing. For each type, quantities, method, tools should be

report (Geotechnical Design

presented.

Usually given in another

• Geological setting of the site (variation of depth and thickness of
layers as interpreted from the borings)
• Subsoil and water-table conditions, (soil parameters as
interpreted from the testing results).
• Design analysis & recommendations: type of foundation, allowable
bearing pressure, settlement estimation, and any special
construction procedure; alternatives design solution.
• Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
The following graphical presentations must
be attached to the report:

1. General map showing site location

2. A plan view of the location of the borings
with respect to the proposed structures and
those nearby
3. Boring logs (including in-situ tests results
and samples)
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other graphical presentations (geotechnical cross
section based on the boring logs, photos of the
field work and soil samples,…)
 Site Investigation
Report

Geotechnical cross section based on the boring

logs

20