ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY
COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
11/12/2023
ADU, CET, ECEg 3153
Course name: Introduction to control
systems
Course code: ECEg3153
Course instructor: Getnet Z.
Contact information:
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Email: [email protected]
Consultation hours:
Wednesday and Friday : from 8:00-11:00
OUTLINE
Introduction to LTI systems
Mathematical modeling
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Mechanical systems
Electrical systems
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Review of Laplace transform
Solving linear differential equations
Transfer function
Block diagrams
Signal flow diagrams
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
A further classification of control systems can be made
depending on the nature of the systems, namely,
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Linear and Non-linear control systems
Time variant and time invariant control systems
Considering this two we could see it as:
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A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input x(t)
and the system output y(t) if it satisfies the following two
properties of superposition and homogeneity.
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
Superposition:
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Non-Linear Control Systems :
Any system which does not
obey superposition principle is
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said to be a non-linear system.
Homogeneity: Physical systems are in
general non-linear and analysis
of such systems is very
complicated.
Hence these systems are
usually linear zed and well
known linear techniques are
used to analyze them.
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
Time Invariant:
A system is said to be time invariant if a time delay or time
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advance of the input signal leads to an identical time shift in
the output signal.
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
In general:
A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are
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constants or functions only the independent variable.
Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time invariant
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lumped parameter components may be described by linear
time invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations.
Systems that are represented by differential equations
whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear
time varying (LTV) system.
Example: spacecraft control
system(themass of the space craft changes due to fuel
consumption)
A system is non-linear if principle of superposition 6
doesn’t apply.
INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
Linear time invariant system
representation:
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Continuous-time LTI system
Order-N Ordinary Differential
equation
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State equation (Finite order-1
differential equations)
Transfer function (Laplace
transform)
Discrete-time LTI system
Ordinary Difference equation
Transfer function (Z transform)
State equation (Finite order-1
difference equations)
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
Impulse response:
In control theory the impulse response
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is the response of a system to a Dirac delta
input. This proves useful in the analysis of
dynamic systems:
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The Laplace transform of the delta
function is 1, so the impulse response is
equivalent to the inverse Laplace
transform of the System's transfer
function.
A continuous-time LTI system is
usually illustrated like this:
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INTRODUCTION (LTI SYSTEMS )
The impulse that is referred to in the term impulse
response is generally a short-duration time-domain signal.
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For continuous-time systems, this is the Dirac delta
function δ(t), while for discrete-time systems, the
Kronecker delta function δ[n] is typically used.
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A system's impulse response (often annotated as h(t) for
continuous-time systems or h[n] for discrete-time systems)
is defined as the output signal that results when an impulse
is applied to the system input.
y(t)=∫x(τ)h(t−τ)dτ
where, h(t) is the system's impulse response
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
We will use quantitative mathematical models of physical
systems to design and analyze control systems.
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The dynamic behavior is generally described by ordinary
differential equations.
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We will consider a wide range of systems, including
mechanical, electrical and electromechanical systems.
Even if most physical systems are nonlinear, we will
consider as they are linear or we will take linearization
approximations, which allow us to use Laplace transform
methods.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
We will then proceed to obtain the input–output
relationship for components and subsystems in the form of
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transfer functions.
The transfer function blocks can be organized into block
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diagrams or signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the
interconnections.
Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very
convenient and natural tools for designing and analyzing
complicated control systems.
NB: We will notice that in every case the first step in
developing a mathematical model is to apply the
fundamental physical laws of science and engineering.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Apply physical laws of science & engineering for each
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sub system or for the overall system as a whole
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Sub
sys
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Modeling mechanical systems:
In mechanical systems, motions can be different types (i.e
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translational, rotational or combination of both) often
governed directly or indirectly by Newton's law of motion.
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Translational System:
It has 3 types of forces due to elements.
Inertial Force: Due to inertial mass,
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Damping Force [Viscous Damping]: Due to viscous
damping, it is proportional to velocity & is given by,
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Spring Force: Spring force is proportional to displacement.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
The translational motion can be Summarized as:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Example:1 Determine the transfer function for the mechanical
system taking the force on the mass as an
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input and the displacement as output.
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Solution:
Free body diagram in time and frequency domain
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Example:2
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical
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system shown below.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Exercises: write out the differential equation and the
transfer function of the ff mechanical systems
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(a) (b)
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Rotational Mechanical Systems:
Consider ideal mass element and negligible friction the
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opposing torque due to the moment of inertia is directly
proportional to angular acceleration
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Consider a frictional element dash pot shown below,
which could produce opposing torque directly
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proportional to angular velocity
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Rotational motion summarized as:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Exercise:
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and the transfer function
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mechanical Systems with Gears:
Most of the systems which are driven by motors are
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associated with gear trains for driving the load.
Which provides mechanical advantage for rotational
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systems.
An input gear with radius r1 and N1
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
The distance traveled along each gear circumstance is
equal:
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The number of teeth along the circumstance is proportional
with the radius:
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Torque relation for input and output gear:
From the above equations we get:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mechanical impedances (spring, damper, inertia) which are
driven by gears:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Hence the equation of motion for the first case:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Example: Find the transfer function for the following
system taking the angular displacement of the second inertia
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as an output when we apply an input torque on the first
inertia:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Hence, the transfer function and the block diagram becomes:
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a. System transfer function b. Block diagram representation
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mathematical Modeling Electrical systems
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Example: determine the mathematical modeling and the
transfer function for the following electrical system.
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Solution:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Taking the Laplace transform assuming all initial
conditions zero:
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Solving the transfer function Vc(s)/V(s)-Output/Input, we
obtain:
Block diagram representation:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
To simplify solving our problem, we can take the Laplace
transform equation of voltage-current relation for all the
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three electrical elements as follows(assuming zero initial
conditions):
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Hence, the above problem can be easily solved as:
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Calculating voltage across the capacitor in terms of loop
current I:
Then the mathematical modeling of the system in the form
of TF will be:
Exercise: drive the dynamic differential equation governing 35
parallel RLC circuit
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
(b) Electrical circuits with active elements:
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Operational Amplifiers: It is an electronic amplifier used as
a basic building block for implementing transfer functions:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Characteristics of operational Amplifier:
Differential input : V2(t) –V1(t)
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High input impedance : Zi = ∞(ideal)
Low output impedance: Zo = 0 (ideal)
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High constant gain amplification A= ∞(ideal)
Hence, the output Vo(t) = A(V2(t) –V1(t))
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
From the characteristics of operational amplifier, since the
input impedance is high Ia(s)=0 and from KCL:
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I1(s) = -I2(s)
Considering the gain A is large V (t)=0, thus
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I1(s)=Vi(s)/Z1(s) and
I2(s) = Vo(s)/Z2(s)
Equating the above two equation the transfer function for an
inverting amplifier configured as above becomes:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Non- Inverting Operational Amplifier:
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For large gain A:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Mathematical Modeling for Electromechanical Systems:
Most systems in Mechatronics are of the mixed type, e.g.,
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electromechanical, hydro mechanical, etc.
Electromechanical systems are systems which have both electrical
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and mechanical variable.
It has different application areas: Robot control, Trackers (ex. Sun
& star tracking), Computer tape & Disk drives, different servo
applications.
Motor: is one of the electromechanical system which yields a
displacement output taking voltage as an input:
Example: Find the Mathematical modeling for DC motor
(Electromechanical system)
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Solution
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
Power Transformation:
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Torque-Current:
Voltage-Speed:
Where Kt: torque constant
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Kb: velocity constant For an ideal motor
Combing previous equations results in the following
mathematical model:
Taking Laplace transform of the system’s differential
equations with zero initial conditions gives:
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MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Inverse Laplace transform/ partial fraction expansion: consider the ff
response
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Can be expressed as: for real roots
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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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EXAMPLE:
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REVIEW OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR
SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Exercises:
1. Solutions of ordinary differential equations of a system
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2. Partial fraction expansion
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Transfer Function:
In control system differential equations can describe the
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relation ship b/n the input and output of the system.
Generally;
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Which relates the output C(t) to the input R(t) by taking
system parameters ai and bi
Using Laplace transform we transfer this differential
equation into transfer function of the system
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Taking all initial conditions zero, the Laplace transform
becomes:
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Then, the input output ratio becomes;
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We call it this ratio of output signal to input signal, G(s), as the
Transfer Function of the system
It can be represented in Block diagram as:
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
The features of the transfer functions are,
(1) It is applicable to Linear Time Invariant system.
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(2) It is the ratio between the Laplace Transform of the o/p
variable to the Laplace Transform of the i/p variable.
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(3) It is assumed that initial conditions are zero.
(4) It is independent of i/p excitation.
(5) It is used to obtain systems o/p response.
The step involved in obtaining the transfer function are;
(1) Write the differential equation of the system.
(2) Replace the terms (i.e take LT of DE
assuming zero initial conditions )
(3) Eliminate all the variables except the desired variables.(take
the ratio of the output and input)
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example:
(a) (b)
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(c)
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
E.g: transfer function of field controlled dc motor
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Solution
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
Cont…
BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Block diagram:- is the short hand pictorial representation
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of the cause-effect relation ship between the input and output
of physical systems.
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Block diagram reduction
Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems and may
have more than one input.
Systems may be single input single output, SISO or multiple input
multiple output, MIMO.
In our discussion the systems are SISO type
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Summing Junction and Pickoff Points
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Cascaded or series blocks
Cascaded systems: one or more subsystem directly followed by
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an other subsystem.
Considering that the interconnected subsystem has no loading
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effect on the adjacent subsystem, we can combine cascaded
systems as:
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Parallel Blocks: Blocks with their input signals has the
same takeoff point and their output signal sinks at the same
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summing junction.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Moving Blocks:
Moving blocks before and after a summing points, pickoff
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points.
Moving block before a summing point
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Moving block ahead a summing point
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Moving block before a pickoff point
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Summary table for Block diagram reduction rules
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Cont…
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Example 1: Calculate the transfer function for the following
system in terms of subsystems transfer functions.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Solution:
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Cascading + positive feedback
Cascading + negative feedback
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Example 2: Find the transfer function G(s)= C(s)/R(s)
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Cont…
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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
AND REDUCTION
Exercise:
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(1)
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Signals Flow Graphs:
Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.
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Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks, signals,
summing junctions, and pickoff points,
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A signal-flow graph consists only of branches which
represent systems, and nodes which represent signals.
A system is represented by a line with an arrow showing the
direction of signal flow
A signal is a node with the signal's name written adjacent to
the node.
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Terminologies on Signal flow graphs
Node: A node is a point representing a variable.(x1,x2)
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Transmittance: A transmittance is a gain between two nodes.(G)
Branch: A branch is a line joining two nodes. The signal travels along
a branch.
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Input node [Source]: It is a node which has only out going signals.(x1)
Output node [Sink]: It is a node which is having only incoming signals.
(x2)
Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing branches
(signals).
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Signal flow graph for Interconnected system
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Block diagrams Signal flow graphs
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Block diagrams can be directly converted to signal flow
graphs.
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If a summing point is placed before a take off point in the
direction of signal flow, in such a case point in the direction
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of signal flow, in such a case the summing point and take off
point shall be represented by a single node.
If a summing point is placed after a take off point in the
direction of signal flow, in such a case the summing point
and take off point shall be represented by separate nodes
connected by a branch having transmittance unity.
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Converting complicated Block diagram to signal flow
graph
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Signal flow graph reduction
It is a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to single
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transfer functions that relate the output of a system to its
input.
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To reduce signal flow graphs we will follow Mason’s Rule.
Mason’s Rule:
First let’s define terminologies which helps to evaluate
Mason’s Rule.
Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the
direction of branch arrows. Such that no node is traversed
more than once.
Loop: It is a closed path.
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch transmittances of
a loop.
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Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do
not possess any common node.
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Forward Path: It is a path from i/p node to the o/p node
which doesn’t cross any node m ore than once.
Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch
transmittances of a forward path.
Self loop: Path that originates and terminates at the same
node.
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
M ASO N ’S GAIN FO RM U LA:
The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a
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signal flow graphs is given by the net gain between the i/p &
the o/p nodes and is known as Overall gain of the system.
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Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall
system gain is given by,
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Cont…
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Non touching loops:
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Non touching loop gain:
The product of loop gains from non-touching loops taken two,
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three, four, or more at a time
All three of the non-touching-loop gains taken two at a time are
In our example there are no non-touching-loop gains taken
three at a time since three non-touching loops do not exist
Substitute to the formula and get the transfer function
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Example: Find the transfer function C(s)/R(s) from the signal
flow graph
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Solution Cont…
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Solution Cont…
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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH AND REDUCTION
Exercise:
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Thank you dear
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students
Any questions?
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