Cellular Structure

Microscopy
A microscope is an instrument that magnifies an object
a) Light microscope uses light to illuminate a specimen
b) Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to illuminate a
specimen. It has higher magnification, higher resolution, and
more detail
Studying Cells
Most cells are too small to see without the aid of a microscope.

Within cells there are numerous structures that also need microscopes,
especially electron microscopes.

In eukaryotic cells, numerous organelles have specialized structures and

functions.
Organelles
in an
Animal
Cell
Organelles in a
Plant Cell
Cytoplasm

 Different in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

 In eukaryotic cells, which have a nucleus, the cytoplasm is
everything between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope.
 In prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus, cytoplasm simply
means everything found inside the plasma membrane.
 One major component is the gel-like cytosol, a water-based
solution that contains ions, small molecules, and
macromolecules.
 The cytoskeleton, a network of fibers that supports the cell
and gives it shape, is found in the cytoplasm.
 Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take
place in this part of the cell.
Nucleus

The nucleus houses the cell’s

DNA and directs the synthesis
of ribosomes and proteins.
Chromosomes and Chromatin

Image (a) shows various levels of the organization of chromatin; (b) shows
paired chromosomes.
Nucleolus

A darkly staining area within the nucleus called the

nucleolus aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated
proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then
transported out through the pores in the nuclear envelope
to the cytoplasm.
Ribosome

Ribosomes are made up

of a large subunit (top)
and a small subunit
(bottom). During
protein synthesis,
ribosomes assemble
amino acids into
proteins.
All cells have
ribosomes.
Mitochondria

• During cellular
respiration
mitochondria make
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), the cell’s main
energy-carrying
molecule.
• They have their own
DNA and ribosomes.
Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single

membranes. They carry out oxidation reactions that break
down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many
poisons that may enter the body.

Glyoxysomes, which are specialized peroxisomes in plants,

are responsible for converting stored fats into sugars.
The
Endomembrane
System

Modifies packages,
and transports lipids
and proteins. It
includes:
 the nuclear
envelope
 lysosomes
 vesicles
 the endoplasmic
reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 the plasma
membrane.
Endoplasmic Reticulum

A series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules

 the rough ER modifies proteins (ribosomes on its surface give it a
studded look)
 the smooth ER synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid
hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; and storage of
calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus

Sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and

proteins takes place in the Golgi apparatus, a series of
flattened membranes. In plant cells the Golgi apparatus
also makes polysaccharides.
Vesicles

Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage

and transport.

Vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release

their contents outside the cell.

Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Unique Features of Animal
Cells: The Centrosome
The centrosome
consists of two
centrioles (right).
They appear to have
some role in pulling
the duplicated
chromosomes to
opposite ends of the
dividing cell.
Unique Features of Animal
Cells: Lysosomes
In addition to their role
as the digestive
component and
organelle-recycling
facility of animal cells,
lysosomes are
considered to be parts of
the endomembrane
system.
Lysosomes also use their
hydrolytic enzymes to
destroy pathogens that
enter the cell.
Unique Features of Plant
Cells: Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are
organelles that carry
out photosynthesis to
make food from
sunlight.
 have their own DNA
and ribosomes
 contain a green
pigment called
chlorophyll
Unique Features of Plant
Cells: Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in
storage and transport. The membrane of a vacuole does not
fuse with the membranes of other cellular components.
Additionally, some agents such as enzymes within plant
vacuoles break down macromolecules.

The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating a plant

cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental
conditions.
The Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is the network of protein fibers that

help maintain the shape of the cell, secure some organelles
in specific positions, allow cytoplasm and vesicles to move
within the cell, and enable cells within multicellular
organisms to move.
Types of Fibers in the
Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments thicken the cortex around the inner edge of a cell; like
rubber bands, they resist tension.
Microtubules are found in the interior of the cell where they maintain cell
shape by resisting compressive forces.
Intermediate filaments are found throughout the cell and hold organelles
in place.
The Cytoskeleton:
Microfilaments

Microfilaments function in
cellular movement.
They provide some rigidity and
shape to the cell. They can
disassemble and reform quickly,
thus enabling a cell to change its
shape and move.
Important in immune and muscle
cells.
The Cytoskeleton:
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments consist of several intertwined
strands of fibrous proteins. They bear tension, maintaining
the shape of the cell, and anchor the nucleus and other
organelles in place.
The Cytoskeleton:
Microtubules
Microtubules help the cell resist compression, provide a track along which
vesicles move through the cell, and pull replicated chromosomes to
opposite ends of a dividing cell. They can dissolve and reform quickly.
Flagella and Cilia

Hair-like structures that extend from the

plasma membrane and are used to move
an entire cell.
Flagella are longer and cells have 0-3 of
them.
Cilia are shorter and usually cover the
whole outside of the plasma membrane.
They may also be used to move substances
such as particulate matter in the
respiratory tract.
Plasma Membrane

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, a

phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, that separates the internal
contents of the cell from its surrounding environment.
Microvilli

The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded

into fingerlike projections called microvilli.
Plant Cell Junctions

Plant cells are connected and communicate with each

other via plasmodesmata, channels that pass between cell
walls of adjacent plant cells
Animal Cell Junctions

Animal cells communicate via their extracellular matrices and are

connected to each other via tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap
junctions.
The Extracellular
Matrix

The extracellular matrix

holds cells together to
form tissues and enables
cells within a tissue to
communicate.

When protein receptors

on the surface of the
plasma membrane of an
animal cell bind to a
substance in the
extracellular matrix, a
chain of reactions begins
that changes activities
taking place within the
cell.
Animal Cell Junctions: Gap
Junctions
Gap junctions are channels between adjacent cells that allow for the
transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable cells to
communicate. They are important in cardiac muscle.
Animal Cell Junctions: Tight
Junction
A tight junction is a
watertight seal
between two
adjacent cells.
 found in epithelial
tissues
 prevents leaking
Animal Cell Junctions:
Desmosomes
Desmosomes join two
adjacent cells together
and maintain the cells
in a sheet-like
formation in organs and
tissues that stretch,
like the skin, heart,
and muscles.
Cell Walls
The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural
support, and gives shape to the cell. Fungal and protistan cells also have
cell walls, as do some prokaryotic cells. While the chief component of
prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule in the
plant cell wall is cellulose (below).
Table 1. Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Present
Present
Cell Present in in
Function in Plant
Components of Prokaryotic
Component Prokaryotes? Animal
Cells?
Cells?

and
Cytoplasm
Eukaryotic Cells
Provides turgor pressure to plant cells as fluid
inside the central vacuole; site of many
Yes Yes Yes
metabolic reactions; medium in which
organelles are found
Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs
Nucleus No Yes Yes
synthesis of ribosomes and proteins
Darkened area within the nucleus where
Nucleolus No Yes Yes
ribosomal subunits are synthesized.
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes
Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes
Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and
Peroxisomes No Yes Yes
amino acids, and detoxifies poisons
Endoplasmic
Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes
reticulum
Golgi Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and
No Yes Yes
apparatus distributes lipids and proteins
Vesicles and Storage and transport; digestive function in
No Yes Yes
vacuoles plant cells
Unspecified role in cell division in animal
Centrosome No Yes No
cells; source of microtubules in animal cells
Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of
Lysosomes No Yes No
Table 1. Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Continued
Present in
Cell Present in Present in
Function Plant
Component Prokaryotes? Animal Cells?
Components of Prokaryotic and Cells?
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis No No Yes
Eukaryotic Cells
Maintains cell’s Continued
shape, secures
organelles in specific positions,
allows cytoplasm and vesicles to
Cytoskeleton Yes Yes Yes
move within cell, and enables
unicellular organisms to move
independently
No, except
for some
Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some
plant sperm
cells.
Cellular locomotion, movement of
Cilia particles along extracellular surface Some Some No
of plasma membrane, and filtration
Separates cell from external
environment; controls passage of
Plasma
organic molecules, ions, water, Yes Yes Yes
membrane
oxygen, and wastes into and out of
cell
Yes,
Protection, structural support and Yes, primarily
Cell wall No primarily
maintenance of cell shape peptidoglycan
cellulose