FUNCTIONS

Lecture # 10
 FUNCTIONS
 A function f from a set X to a set Y is a relationship
between elements of X and elements of Y such that each
element of X is related to a unique element of Y, and is
denoted f : X Y.

 The set X is called the domain of f and Y is called the co-

domain of f.

 Functions are sometimes also called mappings and

transformations.
REMARK
 The unique element y of Y that is related to x by f is
denoted f(x) and is called

the value of f at x,
or
the image of x under f
 ARROW DIAGRAM OF A FUNCTION
 The definition of a function implies that the arrow diagram
for a function f has the following two properties:

1. Every element of X has an arrow coming out of it

2. No two elements of X has two arrows coming out of it

that point to two different elements of Y.
 EXAMPLE
 Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
 Define a function f from X to Y by the arrow diagram.
f

a. . 1
b. . 2
c. . 3
. 4

X Y

f(a) = 2, f(b) = 4,and f(c) = 2 OR

image of a = 2, image of b = 4, image of c = 2
 NONFUNCTIONS
 X = {2, 4, 5} to Y = {1, 2, 4, 6}

a. b.
.1
2. .1
.2 2.
4. .2
.4 4.
5. .4
.6 5.
.6

X Y X Y
NOT A FUNCTION NOT A FUNCTION
 RANGE OF A FUNCTION
 Let f: XY. The range of f consists of those elements of
Y that are images of elements of X.

 Symbolically:

Range of f
= {y Y | y = f(x), for some x  X}
REMARKS
 The range of a function f is always a subset of the co-
domain of f.

 The range of f: X Y is also called the image of X under f.

 When y = f(x), then x is called the pre-image of y.

 The set of all elements of X, that are related to some y Y

is called the inverse image of y.
 EXERCISE
 Determine the range of the functions f, g, h from
X = {2, 4, 5} to Y = {1, 2, 4, 6} defined as:
f

1. X Y

2 . . 1
4 . . 2
5 . . 4
. 6

 2. g = { (2, 6), (4, 2), (5,1) }

 3. h(2) = 4, h(4) = 4, h(5) = 1
 SOLUTION
1. Range of f = {1, 6}

2. Range of g = {1, 2, 6}

3. Range of h = {1, 4}
 EXERCISE
 Find all functions from X = { a, b } to Y = { u, v }
 SOLUTION

1. 2. a u
a u
Y
X b v
b v
3.
4.
a u a u

b v b v

X Y
X Y
 EXERCISE
 Find four binary relations from X = { a, b }to Y = { u, v }
that are not functions.
 SOLUTION 1. 2.
a. .u
a. .u

b. b. .v
.v

X Y X Y

3. X Y X Y
4.
a. u. a. u.

b. v. b. v.
 EXERCISE
 How many functions are there from a set with three elements to a
set with four elements?

 SOLUTION
Let X = {x1, x2, x3} and
Y = {y1, y2, y3, y4}

 x1 may be related to any of the four elements y1, y2, y3, y4 of Y.

 x1 has four possibilities.
 x2 has four possibilities.
 x3 has four possibilities.
Total number of function = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64
 EXERCISE
 Suppose A is a set with m elements and B is a set with n
elements.
 How many functions are there from A to B?

 SOLUTION:
Number of functions from
A to B = n.n.n. … .n (m times)
= nm
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
Lecture # 11
 ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION / INJECTIVE
FUNCTION
 Let f: X  Y be a function. f is injective or one-to-one
if, and only if,  x1, x2  X, if x1  x2 then f(x1)  f(x2).

 That is, f is one-to-one if it maps distinct points of the

domain into the distinct points of the co-domain.
f

x1 f(x1)

x2
f(x2)
 FUNCTION NOT ONE-TO-ONE
 A function f: X Y is not one-to-one iff there exist
elements x1 and x2 such that x1  x2 but f(x1) = f(x2).

 That is, if distinct elements x1 and x2 can found in

domain of f then they have the same function value.
f

x1

f(x1)=f(x2) Y=co-domain of f
X=domain of f

x2
 EXAMPLE
 Which of the arrow diagrams define one-to-one
functions?
f g

a 1 1
a
b 2 2
b
3 3
c c
4 4

X Y X Y
Image of (c)
(a) = 3
(b) 2
1 f is NOT one-to-one function
f is one-to-one function
 EXERCISE
 Find all one-to-one functions from X = { a, b } to Y = { u, v }
 SOLUTION:
 There are two one-to-one functions from X to Y defined by the
arrow diagrams.

We have only two one-to-one functions.

 EXERCISE
 How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with
three elements to a set with four elements.
 SOLUTION
Let X = { x1, x2, x3} and Y = { y1, y2, y3, y4 }

x1 may be mapped to any of the 4 elements of Y. Then x2

may be mapped to any of the remaining 3 elements of Y
& finally x3 may be mapped to any of the remaining 2
elements of Y.
Hence, total no. of one-to-one functions from X to Y are
4 × 3 × 2 = 24
 EXERCISE
 How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with
three elements to a set with two elements.

 SOLUTION

 Let X = {x1, x2, x3} and Y = {y1, y2}

 Two elements in X could be mapped to the two elements in Y

separately. But there is no new element in Y to which the third
element in X could be mapped. Accordingly there is no one-
to-one function from a set with three elements to a set with
two elements.
 EXERCISE
 How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with three
elements to a set with two elements.
SOLUTION:
Let X = {x1, x2, x3} and Y = {y1, y2}

Two elements in X could be mapped to the two elements in Y

separately. But there is no new element in Y to which the third
element in X could be mapped. Accordingly there is no one-to-one
function from a set with three elements to a set with two elements.
ALTERNATIVE DEFINITION OF ONE-
TO-ONE FUNCTION
 Let f: X  Y be a function. f is injective or one-to-one
if, and only if,  x1, x2  X, IF x1  x2 THEN f(x1)  f(x2).

 The contra-positive of definition is:

If f(x1) = f(x2) then x1 = x2

If the contrapositive of the definition is also satisfied then

the function is also one-to-one.
 EXAMPLE
 Define f: R  R by the rule

f(x) = 4x-1 for all x  R

 Is f one to one?

 Prove or give a counter example.

 SOLUTION
 We have to prove the implication.

If f(x1) = f(x2) then x1 = x2

First we suppose that f(x1) = f(x2)

then we will show that x1 = x2
 Let x1, x2  R. such that

f(x1) = f(x2)
 4x1 - 1 = 4 x2 – 1 (by definition of f)
 4 x1 = 4 x2 (adding 1 to both sides)
 x1 = x2 (dividing both sides by 4)

 Thus we have shown that if f(x1) = f(x2) then x1= x2

 Therefore, f is one-to-one
EXAMPLE
 Define g : Z  Z by the rule

g(n) = n2 for all n  Z

 Is g one-to-one?
Prove or give a counter example.
SOLUTION
 Let n1, n2  Z and suppose
g(n1) = g(n2)
 n12 = n22 (by definition of g)
 either n1 = + n2 or n1 = - n 2
Thus g(n1) = g(n2)
does not imply n1 = n2 always.
 COUNTER EXAMPLE:
Let n1 = 2 and n2 = -2. Then
g(n1) = g(2) = 22 = 4
g(n2) = g(-2) = (-2) 2 = 4
Hence g(2) = g(-2) where as 2 -2 and so g is not one-to-one
 SURJECTIVE FUNCTION /ONTO
FUNCTION
 Let f: XY be a function. f is surjective or onto if, and
only if,
 y  Y,  x  X such that f(x) = y.

That is, f is onto if every element of Y is the image of

some element of X.
 That is, f is onto if every element of its co-domain is the
image of some element(s) of its domain.
i.e., co-domain of f = range of f
 FUNCTION NOT ONTO
 A function f:XY is not onto iff there exists y  Y such
that  x  X, f(x) ≠ y.

 That is, there is some element in Y that is not the image of

any element in X.
f
. .
.
. .

. .

X=domain of f Y=co-do main of f

 EXAMPLE
 Which of the arrow diagrams define onto functions?
f
g

a 1
a 1
b 2 b
2
c

c .3 d 3

X Y X Y
 SOLUTION:
 f is not onto because 3  f(x) for any x in X. (3 an
element which is not image of any element of set X)

 g is clearly onto because each element of Y equals g(x)

for some x in X. (co-domain all elements are images of
some elements of domain)
as
1 = g(c)
2 = g(d)
3 = g(a) = g(b)
 EXAMPLE
 Define f: R  R by the rule

f(x) = 4x-1 for all x  R

 Is f onto?

 Prove or give a counter example.

 SOLUTION
 Let y R. We search for an x  R such that

f(x) = y
or 4x-1 = y (by definition of f)

Solving it for x, we find

4x=y+1
y 1
x R
4
Cont…
 Hence for every y R, there exists

y 1
x R such that
4
 y 1
f ( x)  f  
 4 

 y 1
 4.    1  ( y  1)  1  y
 4 
Hence f is onto.
 EXAMPLE
 Define h: Z  Z by the rule

h(n) = 4n - 1 for all n  Z

Is h onto?

Prove or give a counter example.

 SOLUTION
 Let m Z. We search for an n  Z such that
h(n) = m.

or 4n - 1 = m (by definition of h)

m 1
Solving it for n, we find n 
4
m 1
But n  is not always an integer for all m Z.
4
Cont…
 Let m = 3 then m 1 4
integer  1
4 4

 Let m = 5 then m 1 6

not an integer 4 4

 As a counter example, let m = 0  Z, then

h(n) = 0
 4n-1 = 0
1
 4n = 1 n  
4


Hence there is no integer n for which h(n) = 0.

Accordingly, h is not onto.
 EXERCISE
 Determine if each of the functions is injective or
surjective:

a. f: Z Z+ define as f(x) = |x|

b. g: Z+  Z+  Z+ defined as g(x) = (x, x+1)
 SOLUTION
a) f is not injective, because distinct element have same
images.
f(1) = |1| = 1 and f(-1) = |-1| = 1
i.e., f(1) = f(-1) but 1  -1
(clearly not onto, because distinct elements have same images)
f is onto, because for every a  Z+,
there exist –a and +a in Z such that

f(-a) = |-a| = a
and f(a) = |a| = a
Cont…
b) g: Z+  Z+  Z+ defined as
g(x) = (x, x+1)
Let g(x1) = g(x2) for x1, x2 Z+
 (x1, x1 +1) = (x2, x2+1) (by definition of g)

 x1 = x2 and x1 + 1 = x2 + 1
(by equality of ordered pairs)
 x1 = x2
Thus if g(x1) = g(x2) then x1 = x2
Hence g is one-to-one.
 g is not onto because (1,1) Z+Z+ is not the image of
any element of Z+.

 Counter Example:
Let x = 1 then g(x) = (1, 2)
Let x = 2 then g(x) = (2, 3)
Let x = 3 then g(x) = (3, 4) …

Clearly, (1,1), (2,2), (2,4) etc which are the elements of

co-domain Z+Z+ are not images of any elements of Z+.
 BIJECTIVE FUNCTION
 A function f: XY that is both one-to-one (injective) and
onto (surjective) is called a bijective function or a one-to-
one correspondence.
 EXAMPLE
 The function f: XY defined by the arrow diagram is
both one-to-one and onto; hence a bijective function.
f
a 1

b 2

c .3

X Y