OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a
reference model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through
a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs
a particular network function.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller
and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to
each layer can be performed independently.
Layered Tasks
• We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example,
let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail.
• The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex
if there were no services available from the post office.
he OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and
lower layers.
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented only
in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications.
The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data
transport issues.
The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented
in hardware and software.
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and
is closest to the physical medium.
The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
Physical layer
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
Functions of a Physical layer
A)Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices
can be connected physically.
B) Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it
is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two
devices on the network.
C) Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
D) Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for
transmitting the information.
E) Data rate. The transmission rate - the number of bits sent each
second - is also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the
physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it
lasts.
Data-Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer
of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication
between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique
identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
responsibilities of the data link layer include the following :
1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
the data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the
frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on
the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system
outside the sender‘s network, the receiver address is the address of the
device that connects the network to the next one.
1. Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism
to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
2. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
3. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.
Network Layer
• Concerned with getting packets from source to
destination.
• The network layer must know the topology of the
subnet and choose appropriate paths through it.
• When source and destination are in different
networks, the network layer must deal with these
differences.
• The network layer is responsible for the source-
to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks. Whereas the data link
layer oversees the delivery of the packet between
two systems on the same network,
Functions of Network Layer
A) Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
B)Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to
the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the
network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a
header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other
things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
C) Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.
D) Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Transport layer (4th OSI layer)
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
• Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.
• The network layer treats each packet independently, as
though each piece belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does.
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level.
Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following
1. Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs
at the same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery
means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also
from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other. The transport
layer header must therefore include a type of address called a
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets
each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets
the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
3 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the
transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed
end to end rather than across a single link.
4. Error control. Like the data link layer, the
transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is
performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link. The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at
the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction
is usually achieved through retransmission.
Process-to-Process Delivery
• As a revision, the data link layer is responsible for delivery of frames
between two neighboring nodes over a link. This is called node-to-node
delivery.
• The network layer is responsible for delivery of datagrams between two
hosts. This is called host-to-host delivery.
• Communication on the Internet is not defined as the exchange of data
between two nodes or between two hosts. Real communication takes place
between two processes (application programs). We need process-to-process
delivery.
• However, at any moment, several processes may be running on the source
host and several on the destination host. To complete the delivery, we
need a mechanism to deliver data from one of these processes running on
the source host to the corresponding process running on the destination
host.
• At the transport layer, we need a transport layer address, called a port
number, to choose among multiple processes running on the destination
host. The destination port number is needed for delivery; the source port
number is needed for the reply.
