Dams and reservoirs

Lecture 2
 Dams and reservoirs

Introduction

Reservoir Storage Zones

Dam height

Annual and and long term storage

Capacity of the Reservoir

- Analytical method
- Mass curve method
 Introduction
 A dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural
topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir.
 Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley
downstream of a natural basin.
 The valley sides act as natural walls with the dam located
at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the
lowest practical cost of construction.
 In many reservoir construction projects people have to be
moved and re-housed, historical artifacts moved or rare
environments relocated.
 Flow
Introduction
Elevation (E)

150

140
Ridge

Valley
Ridge
Reservoir capacity
(R) 130

120
Elevation (E)
110

100

Area of water
spread (A) Dam
 Reservoir Storage Zones
 Dead Zone is reserved for sediments deposits.
 Live zone (useful storage) is active zone where outflow
calculation is based on. Dam crest

Free board + wave Maximum

height +run-up spillway crest
level

Flood surcharge
Normal conservation level

Live Storage Power tunnel /

Zone irrigation outlet

Dead storage level

Dead Storage
Zone Power plant

River profile
 Dam height
The height of any dam above the lowest level in the river
channel is determined from:
The gross storage (live storage + dead storage) capacity
of the dam.
The space required to pass maximum design flood over
the spillway (called flood surcharge).
The wave height generated from extreme winds.
The wave run-up over the upstream sloping face due to
wind gusts.
The free board for unforeseen emergencies. Free board
of 1.5 to 3 m are customary depending upon the reservoir
importance.
 Dam height
• Live storage = ? → from mass curve / reservoir operation studies.
• Dead storage = ? → from sedimentation analysis.

• The required dam height is worked as:

Total dam height =

Normal conservation level - Minimum River bed level at dam site
+ Flood surcharge (from PMF* routing)
+ Wave height
+ Wave run-up
+ Free board.

Dam crest level = Minimum River bed level at dam site + Total dam
height

* PMF is the Probable Maximum Flood which is the flood that may be expected from the most
severe combination of critical meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably possible
in a particular drainage area.
 Annual Storage

Annual storage is selected when:

 Inflow exceeds the requirements but basin topography
does not permit long-term storage.
 Inflow equals requirements but they do not match in
timing.
 Long-term Storage

Long-term storage is selected when:

 Inflow exceeds the requirements but basin topography
permits long-term storage.
 Inflow is more than requirements.
 The required capacity of the reservoir
 Analytical method
1. For a time series X = x1, x2, ..., xN (N more than 50 years).
2. Calculate the mean value of the annual inflow (M) during
the total period.
3. Calculate the departure (d) of the annual inflow from the
mean value.
4. For each year n calculate the accumalated sum (D) where
n
D   di i  1, 2, ..., N
i 1

5. The storage capacity (R) can be calculated as

R  Dmax  Dmin
 The required capacity of the reservoir

Analytical method (Solved example)

15
Inflow (m /sec

10
3

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Yearly inflow into the Bigge

reservoir
 The required capacity of the reservoir
Analytical method (Solved example)
d d Inflow m3/sec Year d d Inflow m3/sec Year
45.41 41.27 280.04 1986 44.78 44.74 283.51 1966
81.99 36.54 275.31 1987 126.77 82.27 321.04 1967
51.40 -30.63 208.14 1988 58.03 -68.79 169.98 1968
11.04 -40.41 198.36 1989 146.33 88.26 327.03 1969
-55.50 -66.58 172.19 1990 70.96 -75.41 163.36 1970
-59.60 -4.14 234.63 1991 -14.51 -85.50 153.26 1971
-40.05 19.51 258.28 1992 -87.67 -73.20 165.56 1972
19.55 59.88 298.65 1993 -65.59 22.04 260.80 1973
84.20 64.61 303.38 1994 -55.82 10.05 248.82 1974
-41.31 -125.55 113.21 1995 -157.05 -101.27 137.50 1975
-95.24 -53.97 184.80 1996 -200.25 -42.93 195.84 1976
-29.01 65.87 304.64 1997 -184.49 15.41 254.18 1977
-1.58 27.40 266.16 1998 -207.19 -22.75 216.02 1978
44.78 46.32 285.09 1999 -144.43 62.72 301.48 1979
58.03 13.52 252.29 2000 -79.47 64.92 303.69 1980
115.42 57.36 296.12 2001 -87.04 -7.61 231.16 1981
80.73 -34.41 204.35 2002 -52.67 34.33 273.10 1982
53.61 -27.16 211.61 2003 29.01 81.64 320.41 1983
35.32 -18.33 220.44 2004 3.15 -25.90 212.87 1984
0.00 -35.36 203.41 2005 4.10 1.22 239.99 1985
 The required capacity of the reservoir
Analytical method (Solved example)

The Storage capacity (R) can be calculated as

R = max(d) – min(d)
= 146.33 – (-207.19)
= 353.52 million m3.
 The required capacity of the reservoir
Using mass curve method
Mass curve method:
A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e.
supply) or outflow (i.e. demand) versus time.
The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore,
first drawn and is superimposed by the demand curve.
 The required capacity of the reservoir
 Using mass curve method
1. Use the inflow hydrograph to prepare the mass inflow curve.
2. Prepare the mass demand curve by assuming a uniform
demand. The mass demand curve is assumed to be a straight
line.
3. The lines bd, ef, etc are drawn parllel to the mass demand
curve. These lines are tangential to the crests b, d, etc.
4. The vertical intercepts from the tangential curve to the mass
curve (gh, ij, etc) indicate the volumes by which the inflow
volumes fall short of demand.
5. The net storage capacity is taken to be equal to maximum
vertical intercept.
The required capacity of the reservoir
using mass curve method

Accumalated inflow (million m3)

spill f
i demand

e j )month( 1

d k deficit = demand D – flows Q

g
•The reservoir is full at b, d, e and f
h •The reservoir is empty at h and j.
b

Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan.

Months

Storage capacity determination using the

mass curve method
 The required capacity of the reservoir
Mass curve (solved example)
Accumalated inflow (million m3)

800
600 e
i f
d j
400 g million m3 20
b
200 h
)month( 1

Months
 0.00 8081.11 17.70 6.83 Nov-00
deficit = demand D – flows Q
25.58 8106.69 25.58 9.87 Dec-00
68.43 8149.54 42.85 16.53 Jan-01
The storage S required 103.51
to avert 8184.62 35.08
any deficit during the year 13.53 Feb-01
must be equal to
maximum deficit in the 141.50
year. 8222.60 37.99 14.66 Mar-01
The required storage S is determined for each year. The storage S for a
reservoir is selected to168.73 8249.84
ensure averting 27.23
of deficits in most or 10.51 Apr-01
all years depending
upon the purpose of the 178.36
storage. 8259.47 9.63 3.71 May-01
182.11 8263.22 3.75 1.45 Jun-01
186.20 8267.31 4.09 1.58 Jul-01
189.92 8271.02 3.72 1.43 Aug-01
218.53 8299.64 28.62 11.04 Sep-01
232.22 8313.33 13.69 5.28 Oct-01
263.60 8344.71 31.38 12.11 Nov-01
(Graphical and Analytical
Method)
Reservoir Storage Capacity
(cont’d)
Plotting mass curve diagram
Mass curve diagram will be plotted from the cumulative discharge of the water
demand versus cumulative daily discharge of available water supply in selected
location. Cumulative flows are computed by added the total monthly discharge of
Kuching City water demand and also discharge of water at this selected location.
Mass Curve method will be used to determine the required storage of the river.
Total discharge for Kuching water demand and available storage at Sarawak
River will be compared and analyzed before design the proposal of long storage
in Sarawak River basin
(a) Primary loads
1. Water load. This is a hydrostatic distribution of pressure with horizontal
resultant force P1. (Note that a vertical component of load will
also exist in the case of an upstream face batter, and that equivalent
tailwater loads may operate on the downstream face.)
2. Self-weight load. This is determined with respect to an appropriate
unit weight for the material. For simple elastic analysis the resultant,
P2, is considered to operate through the centroid of the section.
3. Seepage loads. Equilibrium seepage patterns will develop within and
under a dam, e.g. in pores and discontinuities, with resultant vertical
loads identified as internal and external uplift, P3 and P4, respectively.
(Note that the seepage process will generate porewater pressures
in pervious materials, and is considered in this light as a
derivative of the water load for the embankment dam (Section
1.7.3).)
(b) Secondary loads
1. Sediment load. Accumulated silt etc. generates a horizontal thrust,
considered as an equivalent additional hydrostatic load with horizontal
resultant P5.
2. Hydrodynamic wave load. This is a transient and random local load,
P6, generated by wave action against the dam (not normally significant).
3. Ice load. Ice thrust, P7, from thermal effects and wind drag, may
develop in more extreme climatic conditions (not normally significant).
4. Thermal load (concrete dams). This is an internal load generated by
temperature differentials associated with changes in ambient conditions
and with cement hydration and cooling (not shown).
5. Interactive effects. These are internal, arising from differential
deformations
of dam and foundation attributable to local variations in
foundation stiffness and other factors, e.g. tectonic movement (not
shown).
6. Abutment hydrostatic load. This is an internal seepage load in the
abutment rock mass, not illustrated. (It is of particular concern to
arch or cupola dams.)
(c) Exceptional loads
1. Seismic load. Oscillatory horizontal and vertical inertia loads are
generated with respect to the dam and the retained water by seismic
disturbance. For the dam they are shown symbolically to act through
the section centroid. For the water inertia forces the simplified
equivalent static thrust, P8, is shown. Seismic load is considered
further within Section 2.7 in relation to embankment dams, and
Section 3.1 with respect to concrete dams.
2. Tectonic effects. Saturation, or disturbance following deep excavation
in rock, may generate loading as a result of slow tectonic movements.
This lies beyond the scope of this text and is not considered further,
but reference may be made to Golzé (1977).
m: fopcus points
ry dam is quite unique: foundation geology, material characteristics
overwhelming majority of dams are of earthfill
Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)
Water level in Lake Nasser and discharge from Aswan High Dam, 1968-1988 (3)

Average monthly discharge downstream from the reservoir before and after its
construction (3).
Streamflow hydrograph
Single and double curvature arch dams
‫لرمل وفتات الصخور والحجر الطيني‬

‫الحظ الصور التالية‬

Grand Coulee Dam, Washington
 Geological and geotechnical
investigations

to determine engineering parameters to evaluate

stability of the dam foundation.

the determination of seepage patterns.

to confirm the containment integrity of the

reservoir basin and the stability of its margins.

confirmation of the nature, suitability and

availability of natural construction materials.